


JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SERIES 



INTRODUCTION 

TO 

AGRICULTURE 



WEEDandRiLEY 



D.C.HEATH&. COMPAN 



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JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SERIES 

INTRODUCTION TO 

AGRICULTURE 

PRACTICAL STUDIES IN 
CROP PRODUCTION 

BY 

CLARENCE M. WEED 

AND 

WILLIAM E. RILEY 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOWELL, MASS. 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 







COPYRIGHT 

1914 AND IC)l6 — BY 
D. C. H E A Til & CO. 



I G6 




©CI.A4 371JM) 
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PREFACE 

The art of agriculture is based upon the production of 
crops. Consequently, it seems highly desirable that the 
study of agriculture should be begun by a general survey 
of the field of crop production. By such a survey the stu- 
dent acquires a general knowledge of the many kinds of 
crops grown in America. He is thus able to supplement 
by a broader view the knowledge gained in the compara- 
tively narrow field of personal experience. 

In this book the attempt has been made to carry out con- 
sistently a method of teaching which has led to successful 
results through many years of use. It is a combination of 
the laboratory and the project methods in which personal 
experience with real objects precedes the study of each crop 
considered. So far as possible these laboratory and project 
outlines are made so simple that they can be carried on in 
connection with any school. While the book is especially 
intended to meet the needs of the Junior High School, it 
should also prove serviceable in other schools. 

The book furnishes the teacher with an abundant series 
of simple directions for work for each pupil to follow out before 
taking up the study of the text. The latter gives the most 
essential facts concerning the characteristics, history, culture, 
varieties, and enemies of practically all our crops. There 
are in addition many charts which show the total production 
of the various crops in the world as a whole, as well as the 
production in the United States and in special states. 

In nearly all cases more outlines are given than are neces- 
sary for an adequate study of the text, hence the teacher 



iv PREFACE 

need not feel that it is essential that every set of directions 
should be carefully followed. There is, however, so little 
duplication that all of the directions may be followed 
without detriment to the pupil. The work should be espe- 
cially valuable in connection with those schools that are 
carrying out project methods with the home or school garden. 

The book is divided into live main parts treating respec- 
tively Vegetable Crops, Flower Crops, Fruit Crops, Farm 
Crops, and the Soil, its Origin and Improvement. It is by 
no means necessary that this order should be followed. The 
topics can readily be taken up in any other sequence, but 
our experience indicates that the order here given is likely 
to yield the most successful results and to fit in best with the 
calendar of the school year. An exception may well be 
made, however, in connection with the soil, and lessons on 
this subject may be taken up at various times in connection 
with some of the crops. 

The authors' desire is to place especial emphasis upon the 
importance of having the pupils get a foundation of personal 
observation in connection with each crop before they study 
the text. By so doing, they come to the latter with knowledge 
and experience which enables them to visualize the discussion 
instead of merely learning so many words and phrases. In 
this respect the book differs from most others and it is be- 
lieved that for this reason it will yield more successful results 
in real knowledge than is the case where the pupil simply 
goes through a few observations as a supplement to the lessons 
studied. 



CONTENTS 

I. VEGETABLE CROPS pace 

Root Crops: Radishes, Turnips, and Rutabagas 3 

Root Crops: Beets, Carrots, and Parsnips 9 

Tuber Crops: The Potato 15 

Bulb Crops: Onions, Leeks, and Shallots 24 

Cole Crops: Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Kale 29 

Pot-herb Crops: Spinach, Chard, and Dandelion 38 

Salad Crops: Lettuce, Celery, and Parsley 42 

Pulse Crops: Beans and Peas 50 

Vine Crops: Squashes, Melons, and Cucumbers 59 

Solanaceous Crops: Tomato, Pepper, and Eggplant 66 

II. FLOWER CROPS 

Annual Flowers 73 

Annual Flowers: The Composites 8i 

Hardy Perennial Flowers 89 

Spring-flowering Bulbs 101 

Summer-flowering Bulbs 108 

III. FRUIT CROPS 

Pomaceous Fruits: The Apple 115 

Pomaceous Fruits: The Pear 126 

Stone Fruits: The Peach 135 

Stone Fruits: The Plums 143 

Stone Fruits: The Cherries 155 

Small Fruits: The Grape 161 

Small Fruits: Currants and Gooseberries 167 

Small Fruits: The Raspberries 176 

Small Fruits: Blackberries and Dewberries 1S2 

Small Fruits: The Strawberry 186 



vi CONTENTS 

IV. FARM CROPS page 

Farm Crops: Indian Corn or Maize 195 

Grain Crops: Wheat 209 

Grain Crops: Oats 218 

Forage Crops: Grasses 224 

Forage Crops: Clovers 22S 

Forage Crops: Alfalfa 233 

V. SOILS: THEIR ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, 
AND IMPROVEMENTS 

The Making of the Soil 241 

The Water in the Soil 245 

Soil Fertility 249 

Soil Tillage and Crop Rotation 253 

The Kinds of Soils 257 

Appendix 261 

Suggestions for the Teacher 203 



VEGETABLE CROPS 





ROOT CROPS: RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS 

The Radish 
Germination Test 

Twenty-five or fifty radish seeds for each pupil. 

If practicable, let each pupil get the seeds from seed- 
pods in school or home garden. 

riacc in the germinating box or plate. Examine 
daily. Remove those that sprout, making a careful 
record each day. 

At the end of a week determine the percentage of 
germination. 

Leave some seeds in a germinating dish until they 
develop root-hairs, as in the picture above. 

Growing Radishes 

Fifty radish seeds for each pupil. Choose early round 
varieties. 

A. Outdoors 

Plant the seeds half an inch apart in rich mellow soil. 
Cover one-half inch deep. 

3 



4 CROP PRODUCTION 

Watch for the seedlings to come up. Dig up one 
when the first true leaves appear. Draw on paper or 
blackboard. 

Dig up another three weeks after sowing. Draw the 
root. 

Pull as fast as the roots are large enough to eat. 

Compare crispness of different radishes. 

B. Indoors 

Plant in a window box next the window all the seeds 
for which there is room. 
Watch and draw as in A. 

• Forms of Radishes 

Different varieties of radish roots from garden or 
market, or pictures of the various types as shown in 
the seed catalogues. 

Practice drawing on blackboard or paper the outlines 
of these types of radish roots: 

Round or turnip-shaped 

Olive-shaped 

Long 

Radish Maggots 

Radishes growing outdoors. Cut open radishes of 
any age, even those that have gone to seed. Find 
brownish tunnels where white maggots have eaten the 
roots. 

Examine several young radishes to see if you can find 
the maggots at work. 

Read the life story of the radish maggot in Farm 
Friends and Farm Foes, pages 126-128. 



RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS 5 

The Turnip and the Rutabaga 

Types of Structure 

A flat turnip, a round turnip, and a rutabaga, all with 
leaves if possible. If any types are missing, replace 
with pictures from seed catalogues. 

Make drawings on blackboard or paper of each type 
of structure. 

Notice which types have hairs upon the leaves. 

Germination Test 

Twenty turnip seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily. 
Record and remove those that sprout. 

At the end of a week determine the percentage of 
germination. 

Growing Seedlings 

One hundred seeds. A window box filled with garden 
soil. 

Scatter the seeds over the soil of the window box. 
Cover lightly with fine soil. Water through cheese- 
cloth. 

When the seedlings have three leaves dig up carefully. 
See: 

The roots and root-hairs with soil particles 

clinging to them. 
The stem above the roots. 
The seed-leaves. 
The true or foliage leaves. 

Practice drawing the seedlings on blackboard and on 
paper. 



ROOT CROPS 

The Radish 

Radishes are justly esteemed as valuable roots for 
eating. They are easy to grow and mature in so short 
a time that many crops may be taken off the same land 
in a single season. They require cool weather for their 
best development, so in most regions they are grown in 
spring and autumn more than in summer. 

There are three principal forms of Radish roots. 
namely: the Round or Turnip-shaped; the Oval or 
Olive-shaped; the Conical-cylindrical or Long radishes. 
The chief colors are red or white or a combination of 
the two. 

Radishes thrive in rich moist loamy soil and are grown 
in enormous quantities in practically all market gar- 
den regions. Winter crops are forced in greenhouses. 
Good varieties mature in a month or less under favor- 
able conditions, the seed being generally sown in drills 
ten to sixteen inches apart. The smallest seeds should 
be discarded, as much better plants are produced by 
large seeds. In addition to the ordinary spring rad- 
ishes generally grown in America, there are varieties 
especially adapted for summer use and others for 
growing in autumn to store for winter use. 

It is not known whether the Radish was developed 
from an original wild plant that cannot now be found 
or from the common weed called wild charlock. As 

6 



RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS 7 

an experiment, edible radishes have been developed 
from this charlock. So it seems probable that it is the 
plant from which the radish came. 

The most troublesome enemy of the radish is the 
Radish Maggot. This is one of the root maggots that 
ruins the roots for food. Eggs are laid by a two-winged 
fly about the base of the young plant. These soon 
hatch into larvae that feed upon the thickened root, 
burrowing through it in all directions. After a few 
weeks they become full grown as larvae and change to 
pupae, to change again soon into two-winged flies. A 
heavy mulching of unleached wood ashes or refuse 
tobacco powder over the rows just after sowing is said 
to be a good remedy for the pest. The earliest crop of 
radishes is seldom infested. A good way to save a 
later crop would be to start it under gauze-covered 
frames, as recommended for starting cabbage plants, 
taking the covers off when the crop is half grown. 
Frequent rotation of the radish bed is desirable. 

The Turnip and the Rutabaga 

The origin of the Turnip is not known. It is be- 
lieved to have been first cultivated in Europe or Asia. 
It belongs to the great mustard family. The thickened 
roots are used as a culinary vegetable as well as for 
stock feed. Two common types of turnips are grown, 
the Flat and the Globular. The flesh is white or yellow. 

Like the radish, the Turnip is a cool season crop, 
doing best in early spring or late summer and autumn. 
It requires a rich moist soil and is grown either in drills 
or broadcast. The chief enemy is the root maggot, to 
prevent which crop rotation is necessary. 



8 CROP PRODUCTION 

The Rutabaga, or Swedish Turnip, is recognized as 
a species distinct from the ordinary turnip. While 
turnip leaves are hairy, those of the rutabaga are 
smooth and glaucous. The top of the swollen tuber is 
lengthened into a sort of neck and the lower surface 
sends out many roots in addition to the long tap-root. 
The flesh is yellow and generally richer than that of the 
turnip. 

The Rutabaga requires a rich soil and a rather long 
season. The seed is sown in June for autumn har- 
vesting. In addition to its use as a culinary vegetable 
it is used largely for feeding cattle. 





ROOT CROPS: BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS 



The Carrot 

Types of Structure 

A long, a half-long, and a short or round carrot. If 
any types are missing supply with pictures from seed 
catalogues. 

Practice drawing on blackboard and on paper until 
pupils can draw each type from memory. 

Germination Test 

Twenty carrot seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily. 
Record germination and compute percentage. 

Compare time of germination for carrot seeds with 
time of germination for radish seeds. 

Growing in the Garden 

Sow a row of carrot seed in early spring in the school 
garden. 

At the same time plant several carrots that have 
been kept over winter. Be sure the crown bud at the 
top is not injured. 

9 



io CROP PRODUCTION 

Give good tillage and care. Thin the seedlings to two 
inches apart. 

See that the seedlings develop roots by autumn and 
that the roots from last year's growth develop flowers 
and seeds. 

This sort of a plant is called a biennial, because it 
takes two years to produce seed. 

Beets and Mangels 
Seed Structure 

Twenty beet seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating box or plate. When germina- 
tion begins examine the seed under a hand lens. Find 
the exact number of plants starting from one seed. 

Examine many seeds to see if they are really seeds- or 
a sort of seed-pod, each holding two or more seeds. 

Growing in the Garden 

Sow seeds and plant beet roots as directed above for 
the carrot, to show that the beet also is a biennial. 

The Parsnip 
Germination Test 

Twenty parsnip seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating box or plate with carrot seeds. 
Examine daily. Record germination and compute 
percentage. 

Compare time of germination of parsnip seeds with 
the time of germination for carrot seeds. 



BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS n 

The Wild Parsnip 

Pull up a wild parsnip. Compare its root with the 
root of the cultivated parsnip. 
Examine the seed. Find the use of the wing. 




ROOT CROPS {Continued) 

The Beet 

The various forms of Beets now cultivated have been 
derived from the Wild Beet, which is common in Southern 
Europe and other regions bordering the Mediterranean 
sea. In addition to the Garden Beet, with which we 
are now especially concerned, there are the large, coarse- 
grained Mangel Wurzels or Mangels, grown for stock 
feed; the Sugar Beets, grown for their sugar content; the 
Foliage Beets, grown for ornament ; and the Swiss Chard, 
grown as a pot-herb. 

It is believed that all of these have been derived from 
the original Wild Beet. This shows what can be done 
by selecting seed with reference to different characters 
of the plant. 

The varieties of Garden Beets are divided into four 
classes as to form, namely. Top-shaped or Turnip-rooted, 
Oval, Half-long, and Long. The Turnip-shaped sorts, 
however, are the ones now grown chiefly for use as a 
culinary vegetable. They require a rich, deep, moist 
soil in good tillage, and under favorable conditions will 
become large enough for bunching in eight weeks from 
seeding. They are usually planted very early in spring 
for summer use, and again in summer for fall and winter 
use. 

The so-called seed of the Beet is really a seed-head or 
fruit, in each of which there are usually several seeds. 



BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS 13 

Because of this it is necessary to thin the seedlings even 
if the seed is scattered sparsely in the drill. The seed- 
lings thinned out are commonly saved for beet-greens. 
Early in the season the beets are sold in bunches; 
later by the bushel. Three hundred bushels per acre is 
a fair yield. 

The Carrot 

The great family of plants which have small flowers 
grouped together in flat-topped clusters or umbels is 
called Umbelliferae. It includes three well-known vege- 
tables, two of which — carrot and parsnip — are culti- 
vated for their roots, and one — parsley — for its leaves 
and leaf-stems. All are hardy species and from the point 
of view of seed production are biennials. 

The cultivated Carrot is believed to have been de- 
veloped at least two thousand years ago, from the Wild 
Carrot, a familar weed called by botanists Daucus carota. 
Its original home was probably Europe or Asia. The 
Carrot is now an indispensable vegetable for use in 
soups, stews, and salads, as well as for table use alone 
and for feeding stock. 

The original long Carrot has been developed through 
selection into three distinct forms as to length — Short 
or Globular, Half-long, and Long. The two latter have 
also two types of pointedness, one set of varieties being 
distinctly pointed at the lower end and the other set 
blunt or rounded. There are also four types of color 
in the roots — white, yellow-red or orange-red and purple. 
The yellow and the orange-red types are the most 
popular. 

The main crop of Carrots requires a long season for 



i 4 CROP PRODUCTION 

growth. With most sorts the seed is sown early in spring 
and the roots are harvested late in autumn, but quick- 
growing forcing varieties that become large enough for 
use in early summer are now available. The Carrot 
thrives in a rich, deep, moist soil in the best condition 
that tillage can give it and as free as possible from weeds. 
The seeds are slow in germinating, so it is well to mark 
the rows by adding a few radish seeds. The seeds are 
commonly planted in drills twelve to sixteen inches 
apart for hand hoeing. The seedlings must be weeded 
and thinned so that each root will have plenty of room. 
Two hundred bushels to the acre is a fair yield. 

The Parsnip 

Like the carrot the Parsnip is believed to have been 

developed more than two thousand years ago from a 

wild plant — the Wild Parsnip, which is a common weed 

along many roadsides. There are three types of roots 

- the Short or Globular, the Half-long, and the Long. 

The Parsnip requires a soil even deeper than that for 
the carrot, as the slender tap-root of the long variety 
has been traced down nearly three feet. The soil 
should be rich and moist and in fine tilth. Seeds are 
planted early in spring in drills fifteen to eighteen inches 
apart and the seedlings thinned to four or five inches 
apart. The seeds germinate slowly, so the rows should 
be marked by radish seedlings. The roots mature late 
in autumn and may be dug then or left in the ground 
through the winter, if protected by a light mulch. Five 
hundred bushels to the acre is a good yield. 




TUBER CROPS: THE POTATO 

Types of Form 
Potatoes showing variety of form — long, round, and 
intermediate. Make outline or shaded drawings on 
blackboard or paper. 

Depth of Eyes 

Potatoes of various forms, some with deep, some with 
shallow eyes. 

Weigh a potato with shallow eyes. Make a record 
of its weight. Peel this potato. Weigh the peelings. 
Determine the per cent of peelings. 

Weigh a potato with deep eyes. Make a record of 
its weight. Peel this potato. Weigh the peelings. 
Determine the per cent of peelings. 

In which potato is there the greater waste by peeling? 

Seed Balls 

Seed balls from potato tops, brought in by the pupils. 

Examine carefully and draw. ' Open and examine. 

What do they come from? How do they differ from 
potato tubers in origin? 

Cut the balls in two. Place in water in a dish. In a 
week or so they will begin to ferment. Then wash out 

is 



1 6 CROP PRODUCTION 

the seeds and store carefully for planting the next spring. 
In the spring plant and see the development of new tubers 
when the vines are dug. 

Insect Enemies 

Find as many stages of the potato beetles as you can 
and bring to school. 

Do these insects bite the leaves or suck the sap? 

Where and in what stage do they pass the winter? 

Read pages 135-136, Farm Friends and Farm Foes. 

Can you find on the leaves tiny black beetles that 
jump when disturbed? These are flea beetles. 

Can you see the little holes in the leaves that these 
flea beetles make? 

How do farmers destroy potato insects? Spray or 
dust the potato plants in school or home garden with 
arsenate of lead to prevent injury by these insects. 

Are potato leaves sprayed with Bordeaux mixture 
injured by flee beetles? 

Fungous Enemies 

Find potato leaves injured by blight. Compare with 
healthy leaves. 

If there are sprayed potato plants near by see the 
difference between them and unsprayed plants. Spray 
your own plots with Bordeaux mixture. 

Find out if the tubers from blighted plants are more 
liable to rot than those from healthy plants. 

Find some scabby potatoes. Inquire if any one in the 
neighborhood soaked the seed potatoes in formalin solu- 
tion. What was the result? A better way to find out 
is to soak the seed potatoes you plant in formalin solu- 



THE POTATO 



17 



tion. Dilute one-half pint formalin with fifteen gallons 
of water. Soak two hours. 

Scoring a Hill of Potatoes 

Let each pupil bring to school the total product of one 
hill of potatoes. 

Score each exhibit according to some approved score 
card, preferably the one in use at your state or county 
fair. If such is not available use the following : Per ccnt 

Name of variety 10 

Eight or less tubers, at least two inches in small diameter 20 

Uniformity of size, not too large or too small 15 

Freeness from dirt, scab, rot, or insect injury 15 

Smoothness, with shallow eyes 10 

Flesh white and firm, without hollow center 10 

Story of how they were grown 10 

Drawing of the tubers on the blackboard or paper ... 10 

100 

Let each pupil fill out a fresh score card for each 

exhibit at least three times, each time on a different day. 




POTATOES 

AVERAGE ANNUAL 
PRODUCTION 

DEC/WE r/399-/90eJ 

//V rt/u/b/vs orsc/s/fSiS 



THE POTATO 

The Potato is one of the most important crops grown 
by man. Taking the whole world into consideration it 
ranks next to rice in extent and value, the world product 
in a single year amounting to nearly five billion bushels. 
In America it is by far the most important vegetable 
crop, and is grown for market as a field staple in many 
states. New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wis- 
consin lead in the production of potatoes, while Maine, 
Montana, and Nevada lead in the average number of 
bushels per acre. The average annual crop for the whole 
United States is estimated at more than two hundred 
and fifty million bushels. 

The cultivated Potato has been derived from a wild 
plant called Solatium tuberosum, which has been growing 
since prehistoric times in South America and Mexico. 
The natives of Peru appear to have brought it into cul- 
tivation some thousands of years ago, so that when the 
Spaniards invaded that country in the sixteenth century 
they found the Potato in cultivation. They were so 
impressed with its value that tubers were sent to Europe 
in 1542 and later. 

Potatoes were also grown by the early colonists of 
North America, though whether they were obtained from 
Indians or Spaniards seems not to be known. A notable 
date in the history of the Potato is the year 1586, when 
it was introduced into Ireland. It there became so 

18 



20 



CROP PRODUCTION 




important a crop that to this day it is known as the 

Irish Potato. 
While the sweet potato is a root-tuber, the Potato is a 

stem-tuber, developing from an underground stem or 

root-stock. The eyes upon the tuber are really buds and 

are arranged in 
spirals in a way 
that may be read- 
ily seen by placing 
a pin or tack in 
the eye of each 
potato and then 
twisting a piece of 
string along the 
line. The tuber is 
a store house of 
Potatoes as they Form in the Hill starchy plant food 

by means of which the plant is a perennial. 

It now rarely reproduces by means of the berry-like 

fruits that follow the blossoms above ground. 

The Points of a Good Potato 

For the ordinary purpose of home or market a potato 
should be of good size, but not so large as to be liable to 
show hollow spaces when cut open. It should be thick 
for its length and have few and shallow eyes, that there 
may be as little waste as possible in peeling. When 
grown under favorable conditions it should cook to a good 
mealy quality. Stems and leaves should be held erect 
and have as much resistance to disease as possible. In 
most markets a white skinned, white-fleshed potato is 
preferred to one showing red colors. 



THE POTATO 



21 



Potatoes thrive in a deep, moist soil which is well- 
drained and loamy, with an abundance of humus or de- 
caying vegetation. The details of culture vary consider- 
ably in different regions, but all agree in having the roots 
so well covered that there is plenty of room for the tubers 
to mature without exposure to the sun and air. 

In regions where potato production is a specialty the 
culture, planting, spraying, digging, and sorting is done 
with the help of special machines, but in most regions 
the work is done by hand. The most successful growers 
cut the tubers to not more than two or three eyes before 
planting, the cuttings being placed about a foot apart 
in rows about three feet apart. The crop requires a 
complete fertilizer with an abundance of potash. A good 
average yield is about two hundred bushels per acre, 
but much greater yields are obtained by scientific culti- 
vation. 

In the southern states the production of early tubers 
for northern markets is one of the most important phases 
of the great truck crop 
industry. Northern 
grown seed of early 
varieties is planted as 
early as the climate 
allows. The new pota- 
toes are packed in 
slatted barrels with 
burlap covers and sent 
by rail to New York 
or Boston and other 

northern cities. From these great centers they 
distributed to local markets everywhere. 




Adult 



COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE 



are 



22 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Insect and Fungous Enemies 

Potato leaves are almost universally attacked by the 
Ten-lined Potato Bug, the most destructive enemy of 
the crop. The adult beetle appears as soon as the 
plants come up, feeding upon the young leaves and 
depositing clusters of yellow .eggs. These eggs soon 
hatch into dark brown larvae that also eat the leaves 

and if undisturbed soon 
defoliate the plants. The 
larvae become full-grown in 
about a month. Then they 
enter the soil and change to 
pupae, to change again a 
little later to the second 
brood of adult beetles. 
These lay eggs for the 
second brood of larvae, 
which is likely to be much 
more numerous and destruc- 
tive than the first. Spray- 
ing or dusting the leaves 
with arsenate of lead or other arsenical is the general 
remedy for this pest. 

The Leaf Blight or Early Blight of Potatoes is one of 
the most widespread of diseases. It is due to the attack 
of a parasitic fungus that develops only in the leaves and 
stems. About the* time the plants blossom the disease 
begins to show as small grayish or brownish spots scat- 
tered over the leaflets. These spots are dry and brittle. 
They enlarge from day to day as the threads of the fungus 
invade new cells in the green tissues. Finally many of 




Potato 



Leaf affected 
Late Blight 



THE POTATO 



23 



them run together to form large brown blotches, so that 
the plant is killed and the growth of the tubers ceases. 
The latter do not rot, however, as in the case of those 
affected by the Late Blight. 

In the regions where it occurs the Downy Mildew or 
Late Blight is the most destructive fungous disease of 
Potatoes. The fungus attacks both leaves and tubers, 
causing a serious rotting of the latter. Fortunately it 
can be prevented to a large extent by spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture, a treatment that also helps in prevent- 
ing injury by flea beetles and Early Blight. Arsenate 
of lead is generally added to the fungicide whenever the 
potato beetles threaten damage. 





BULB CROPS: ONIONS, LEEKS, AND SHALLOTS 

The Onion 
Types of Bulb Crops 

A collection of as many varieties of onions as teacher 
and pupils can bring together — large onions, small 
onions for pickling, bunch onions, and sets. Also chives 
and leeks if available. 

Make outline or shaded drawings on blackboard or 
paper of round and flat types. Also of groups of sets 
or small onions. 

Origin of Seed 

The tops of an onion gone to seed in school garden or 
some home garden. 

Let each pupil pull out some of the black seeds from 
the withered flowers. 

If multiplier onions are available show how these 
originate. 

Seed Germination 

Twenty onion seeds for each pupil. 
Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily 
and determine the per cent of germination. 

24 



ONIONS, LEEKS, AND SHALLOTS 



25 



Growing Seedlings 

One hundred or more seeds. A window box filled with 
garden soil. 

Scatter the seeds over the soil. Cover lightly. Water 
through cheesecloth. 

When the seedlings come up, have the pupils examine 
them carefully and make outline drawings on blackboard 
or paper. 




ONIONS 

PRODUCT/ON //V /899 
CENSUS-/900 

W 7H0USANOS OF BUSHELS 



BULB CROPS 

The Onion 

The Onion is by far the most important of the Bulb 
Crops. Immense quantities are raised commercially for 
home and export markets and considerable quantities 
are also raised by individuals for home use. During 
recent years the production of early Onions for northern 
use has become a leading phase of the trucking industry 
in many southern states. 

Successful Onion growing requires more care in culture 
than in the case of most crops. Rich level land free 
from weed seeds and in the very best condition as to 
fineness and freedom from stones is necessary for the 
crop. Early in spring the small black seeds are planted 
thickly in shallow drills and covered with about one-half 
inch of soil. The slender seedlings soon come up. When 
they reach a height of three inches they are thinned to 
an inch and a half or two inches apart. Then later, 
when the young bulbs are large enough to eat, they are 
thinned again if mature Cnions are wanted. The plants 
pulled up can be used and the distance between those 
left will vary from three to six inches, according to the 
size of the variety and the conditions of culture. 

Frequent and shallow tillage is needed to keep the soil 
surface free from weeds or a crust, and hand weeding of 
the rows must be given whenever weeds appear among 

26 



BULB CROPS 27 

the seedlings. Care must be taken not to cover the 
bulbs with soil. Toward the end of summer the leaves 
should begin to die down as they ripen off. This process 
is often hastened by rolling a barrel along the rows to 
break down the tops. When the leaves are all brown, 
the bulbs are pulled and left exposed a few days to the 
drying sun to ripen off. Five hundred bushels to the 
acre is a good yield for Onions. 

While the main Onion crop is grown in the way de- 
scribed, there is a large demand, in both home and market, 
for bunch onions in spring and early summer. These 
are partly grown bulbs either from seeds or "sets." 
Sets are simply dwarfed Onions grown so thickly on poor 
soil that they crowd one another and ripen off as little 
bulbs, less than an inch in diameter. They are then 
pulled and stored until next spring. Planted early, 
they soon start into growth and in a few weeks yield 
young Onions for pulling. Instead of sets, seedlings are 
often grown under glass and transplanted when the 
ground is fairly warm. 

In regions where Onions are grown commercially two 
fungous diseases are often troublesome — the Mildew 
and the Smut. The Onion Mildew appears as a grayish 
velvety mold upon the leaves, many of which soon wilt 
at the tip in a characteristic way. Millions of spores are 
soon developed and serve to spread the malady. Damp 
weather is favorable to the disease. 

Onion Smut is entirely different in appearance. It 
shows on leaves and bulbs as blackish streaks made up 
of the spores of the fungus. It is able to live over winter 
in the soil, so that if Onions are again planted the disease 
is likely to be more destructive. Consequently frequent 



28 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Other Bulb Crops 

rotation is one of the best preventive measures for this 
disease. 

The other Bulb Crops — Leeks, Chives, Shallots, and 
Garlic — are of comparatively little importance in a 
commercial way. Chives are very useful for the home 
garden, the leaves furnishing excellent material for 
seasoning and salads. Leeks, Shallots, and Garlic are 
not in general demand in America, except in the larger 
cities. The appearance of Garlic as placed on the 
market is shown in the picture below. 





COLE CROPS: CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 

The Cabbage 

Types 

Mounted pictures from seed catalogues of flat and con- 
ical varieties, as well as those with crumpled leaves. 

Let pupils tell of the kinds of cabbages they have grown 
or seen. 

Seed Germination 

Ten seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating dish and determine the percent- 
age that germinate. 

Growing Seedlings 

About fifty seeds. Window box of garden soil. 

Sow seeds on surface of soil outdoors or in sunny 
window. Cover lightly. Water through cheesecloth. 

When seedlings come up, dig up and study structure. 
See roots, stem, seed-leaves, and true leaf. 

Compare with radish seedling. 

Draw for booklet. 

Enemies 

Find cabbage worms or chrysalids and keep in glass- 
covered box to rear adult butterflies. 

29 



3 o CROP PRODUCTION 

In spring and early summer plants that die are likely 
to show that roots are destroyed by root maggots. 

The Cauliflower 

Structure 

A cauliflower and a cabbage, each cut through the 
center vertically. 

Compare the structure of the cabbage and the cauli- 
flower. 

Find out who grow cauliflower in your neighborhood. 

Kale, Kohlrabi, and Brussels Sprouts 
Structure 

A plant of each or mounted pictures from seed 
catalogues. 

Describe kale. How does it differ from cabbage? 

Describe kohlrabi. How does it differ from kale? 

Describe a Brussels sprouts plant. How does it differ 
from cabbage? 



COLE CROPS 

Under the phrase Cole Crops are commonly included 
several plants now quite different from one another, but 
which have all been developed from the Wild Cabbage, 
a member of the Mustard Family, native to European sea 
coasts. It is a rather small plant and is very different 
from any of those which have been derived from it. 
These include Cabbage, Cauliflower, Kale, Kohlrabi, and 
Brussels Sprouts. 

The Cabbage 

The Cabbage is much the most important of these 
Cole Crops. It has been grown since prehistoric times 
and has become a staple article of human food over a 
large part of the globe. The head is really a shortened 
stem or giant bud in which in vertical cross-section one can 
easily see the leaf-stems and leaf-blades, and even the 
small buds in the axils of the stems. The plant is a 
biennial, forming heads of leaves the first year and send- 
ing up flower stalks the second. There are several dis- 
tinct types of Cabbages; some have conical heads, others 
flattened ones. The Savoy Cabbages have crumpled 
leaves. In each type there are red as well as green or 
white-leaved sorts. 

To mature successfully. Cabbages require a deep, 
moist, rich, loamy soil in which they can grow continu- 
ously until the heads are formed. The young plants are 

31 



3 2 



CROP PRODUCTION 



commonly started in hot-beds or greenhouses for the 
early crop, and in outdoor seed-beds for the late crop. 
When started outdoors or when properly hardened off 
from indoor culture, they are quite hardy as to frost. 
The small-headed sorts may be planted two feet apart 
each way, but the large ones require thirty inches or more. 
After the plants are set, good tillage must be given to 
save the moisture in the soil, so that there may be no 
checking of growth. Unless the ground is very rich, the 
plants will be benefited by one or two light applications 
of nitrate of soda or other fertilizer rich in nitrogen. 
Young Cabbages may be planted from late in April until 
early in July for successive crops. 

It is especially important that Cabbage seed be selected 
from the best plants of each type. Commercial growers 
appreciate the importance of this and willingly pay 

high prices for strains 
of seed produced by 
specialists. The differ- 
ence between profit and 
loss from a given field 
may easily depend upon 
the percentage of plants 
that make sound heads, 
and this depends very 
largely upon the quality 
of the seed. 

Insect Enemies 
Two insect pests are often destructive to cabbages — 
the Root Maggot and the Cabbage Worm. The Root 
Maggots hatch from eggs laid about the base of the young 




CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 33 

plants by a small two-winged fly, somewhat resembling 
the common house fly. These eggs soon hatch into 
whitish maggots that feed upon the roots, checking the 
growth of the seedling, if not killing it outright. In a 
few weeks the maggots change to pupae, to change later 
to flies like those that laid the eggs. One of the best 
ways to prevent such injury is to grow the seedlings in a 
frame covered with cheesecloth. The cloth is removed 
a week before the plants are set out to harden off by 
full exposure to sunshine. 

The Cabbage Worm is one of the best known garden 
insects. The adult is the familiar white butterfly com- 
mon from spring till fall. These butterflies lay eggs 
upon the cabbage leaves The eggs hatch into greenish 
caterpillars that feed upon the leaves, remaining hidden 
in the forming head. They feed and grow for several 
weeks, often riddling the head with their nibbling when 
several are present. Then, being full grown as cater- 
pillars, they crawl out, and attaching themselves by silken 
threads to the sides of boards, stones, or other shelter, 
change to chrysalids, to change again a little later to 
butterflies. Thus the life-cycle is completed. There are 
commonly several broods a year. On young plants 
which have not begun to head, the larvae may be killed 
by kerosene emulsion. On heading plants insect powder 
may be used. 

Fungous Diseases 

There also are two diseases especially injurious to 
cabbages — Black Rot and Club-root. The Black Rot 
is a bacterial disease, the germs of which develop by 
millions in the sap tubes of the plant, causing death and 



34 



CROP PRODUCTION 



decay. The destruction of affected plants, rotation of 
crops, and soaking the seed in a dilute solution of for- 
malin are the most important preventive measures. 

Club-root of cabbage is due to a low form of fungus 
— one of the so-called slime molds — that lives in the 

soil and attacks the 
roots, causing them 
to become abnor- 
mally swollen. 
Rotation of crops, 
setting healthy 
plants, and heavy 
applications of lime, 
both to the land 
and to the seed- 
bed, are the chief 
methods of prevent- 
ing the disease. 



The Cauliflower 
The Cauliflower 
is ranked as a vari- 
ety of the Wild 
Cabbage, so its 
Brassica oleracea, variety botrytis. 




The Later Stages of the Cabbage Worm: 
Larva, Chrysalis, Butterfly 



technical name is 

The edible part consists of the curiously modified flower 

clusters which form the succulent white head. 

It requires constant and careful selection of seed to 
keep the type perfect, so that it is more important to use 
the choicest seed with this crop than with almost any 
other vegetable. Until recently practically all the seed 
used in America was grown by specialists in Europe, but 



CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 35 

of late excellent seed has been produced in the Puget 
Sound region. The climate there is especially favorable 
to the growth of Cauliflowers. The best strains of Cauli- 
flower seed cost five dollars an ounce wholesale, but an 
ounce will yield more than two thousand plants. Other 
strains are listed at half this price, but in this case the 
best is cheapest, because it yields a greater percentage 
of salable heads. 

The Cauliflower is essentially a cool-season crop. In 
certain regions where the summer climate is cool and 
moist, the crop can be grown successfully all through the 
season. Such regions are found near the sea coast or 
the great lakes or in mountainous localities. In other 
places where the summer is hot and dry, it is necessary 
to plan to grow the crop either early or late. For the 
former the plants are started under glass in February or 
March, hardened off in early spring, and set out when 
the ground is in good condition. Such crops mature in 
early summer and are harvested before the heat and 
drought of midsummer. For this crop early varieties 
are planted. 

The late crop is started in seed-beds outdoors and 
planted in June, maturing in early autumn. A chief 
danger of the summer heat is the burning of the delicate 
heads, so that the late crop escapes this because the 
heads are not formed until late in summer or early in 
autumn. It is desirable, however, to tie up the outer 
leaves around the heads by means of raffia or bast, thus 
insuring better blanching and cleaner heads. 



36 CROP PRODUCTION 

Culture and Enemies 

It is even more important with Cauliflower than with 
cabbage that the plants grow steadily and thriftily from 
beginning to end. To insure this, particular pains must 
be taken in the selection, preparation, and tillage of the 
soil. In selecting the location, choose if possible a deep, 
moist, well-drained loam, rich in humus and easily worked. 
In preparing the land, work in a large amount of fer- 
tilizing material, with plenty of vegetation to furnish 
humus, and get the soil into the best possible tilth. In 
tillage, after planting keep the soil surface in so finely 
pulverized a condition that no weeds can grow and little 
moisture can evaporate. In regions where irrigation can 
be practiced throughout the growing season, success with 
Cauliflower is comparatively easy. 

The Cauliflower is subject to attack from the same 
insect enemies and fungous diseases as the cabbage, and 
their injuries are likely to be even more disastrous. It is 
especially important to keep the Cauliflower heads free 
from worms during the later growth of the crop. The 
same remedial measures may be used as for cabbage. 

Kale, Kohlrabi, and Brussels Sprouts 

Of all the forms derived from the Wild Cabbage, the 
Kale or Borecole is most like the original plant. It 
forms no head, being grown for its clusters of leaves, 
which are more or less thickened, especially in midrib 
and stalk, and in modern varieties are of various colors 
and much cut, curled, and crumpled along the margins. 
There are dwarf and tall, plain and variegated, green 



CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 37 

and purple types. Kale is probably the hardiest plant 
of the cabbage group, enduring exposure through south- 
ern winters and even at the north surviving with slight 
protection. Large quantities are grown in Virginia, 
harvested in early winter, and shipped to northern 
markets. 

In the Kohlrabi the edible part is the curiously swollen 
stem just above the ground. This is sometimes called 
the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, but this is not a correct 
name, because the swollen part is not the root at all. 
Commercially this is one of the least important plants 
of the cabbage group. The culture is much the same 
as for cabbage, it being important to harvest the crop 
before the swollen stems become tough and woody. 

In studying the cabbage we learned that there are buds 
in the axils of the leaves. In the Brussels Sprouts we 
have a form in which these buds are developed into tiny 
cabbage heads which are very good to eat. Seed is 
planted and seedlings transplanted much as with the 
cabbage. The central stem elongates and sends out 
coarse leaves along its sides. In summer the buds de- 
velop in the axils of the leaves, and the leaves are then 
to be removed in order that the strength of the plant 
may be sent into the buds. These increase rapidly in 
size, looking like miniature cabbages strung upon the 
stem. A lot of these as they are marketed are pictured 
on page 29. 

Cabbage Brassica oleracea, variety capiiata. 
Wild Cabbage Cauliflower botrytis. 

Kale acephala. 

Brassica oleracea Kohlrabi " caulo-rapa. 

. Brussels Sprouts " ' gemmifera. 




POT-HERB CROPS: SPINACH, CHARD, AND DANDELION 

Spinach 
Seed Testing 

Twenty seeds for each pupil. 

Determine the percentage of germination. If old 
seeds are available test those also and compare germi- 
nation with that of fresh seeds. 

Leaf Miners 

Find spinach leaves with discolored blotches. Hold 
them to the light to see the maggots inside. 

Swiss Chard 
Seed Testing 

Ten seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germinating dish. When seeds sprout, see if 
there is more than one seedling for each seed. 

Compare with the results found in germinating the 
seeds of beet. 

38 



POT-HERB CROPS 

The Pot-herb Crops include the various plants grown 
for "greens." Spinach, Chard, Dandelion, and Mustard 
are the most important of these. They all require for 
their best development a moist, rich soil that promotes 
quick growth of leaves and stalks, the parts used. To 
insure such growth, light applications of nitrate of soda 
or sulphate of ammonia are often made to the growing 
crops. 

Spinach 

Spinach, pronounced and often spelled Spinage, is 
commercially the most important Pot-herb. It is suffi- 
ciently tender to make good greens and sufficiently tough 
to bear shipping long distances. Consequently it is 
raised in nearly all trucking regions and sent to near or 
distant markets. It is a cool-season crop, thriving in 
early spring and late autumn and hardy enough to live 
through mild winters. In the north it may be wintered 
over in cold frames, but in Virginia and other southern 
regions it requires no protection. In the latitude of New 
York a covering of litter or straw is often given. 

The culture of Spinach is simple. For home use at 
the north the seed should be sown in spring as soon as 
the ground can be worked to advantage, being scattered 
sparingly in drills and covered with half an inch of soil. 
When the seedlings have five or six leaves they should 
be thinned to four inches apart, the plants pulled up 

39 



4 o CROP PRODUCTION 

being used for greens. The main crop should be ready 
for use late in May or early in June, the ground being 
cleared in time for a crop of beans or other vegetables. 
In more southern regions the main sowing may be 
made early in September so that the plants are well 
grown by winter and will mature in early spring. 

Spinach has been cultivated for many hundred years. 
It is thought to have originated from a wild plant native 
to Asia, called Spinacia olcracea. It belongs to the Pig- 
weed Family. This is probably the reason why it is 
commonly attacked by a leaf-mining fly that develops in 
our native white pigweeds. This leaf miner is the most 
injurious insect enemy of Spinach. The infested leaves 
show discolored blotches through which the outlines of 
the footless maggots are readily seen. In northern 
regions spinach leaves that mature before the end of 
May are generally not infested. 

Swiss Chard 

For summer and fall use at home Chard or Swiss 
Chard is the most desirable Pot-herb. It is really a 
beet, developed for leaves rather than roots. It is 
sometimes called Leaf-beet. Seed sown very early in 
spring in rich, moist soil will yield leaves large enough to 
use by early summer and a continuous succession there- 
after until winter. The comparatively new variety 
called Giant Lucullus is a great improvement over the 
older sorts. The leaves of Chard are too tender to 
stand shipment, so they are seldom seen in the 
markets. 



POT-HERB CROPS 41 

Dandelion 

In a few trucking regions the Dandelion is an impor- 
tant commercial crop. Seed is sown in early spring in 
rich, light soil, the ground being kept well tilled until 
it is covered by the spreading leaves. The plants are 
large enough by fall to yield a cutting of leaves and may 
then be left until spring, with perhaps a light mulch in 
winter. In spring they are to be harvested and the 
roots should be plowed out or they will form new crowns 
that will blossom and scatter seed over the surrounding 
country. The varieties developed in France and offered 
by seedsmen are much better for crop purposes than our 
wild Dandelion. 

Several other Pot-herbs are occasionally grown as 
crops. Various Mustards, the French Purslane, or 
"pusley," and Orach, another member of the Pigweed 
Family, are the most important of these. 



The Kinds of Pot-herbs 



Spinach 

Chard 

Dandelion 

Mustards 

Purslane 

Orach 




SALAD CROPS: LETTUCE, CELERY, AND PARSLEY 

Lettuce 
Types of Form 

A cabbage lettuce, a Grand Rapids lettuce, and a Cos 
lettuce or mounted pictures from seed catalogues. 
See how each type differs from the other types. 

Harvesting Seeds 

Lettuce plants gone to seed in school or home garden. 
Let each pupil separate twenty seeds from seed-heads 
to use in germinating test. 

Seed Germination 

Twenty seeds for each pupil. 
Determine the percentage of germination. 
Plant part of the seeds in a window box and use the 
seedlings in drawing exercises on blackboard or paper. 

Celery 
Varieties 

Study two or three seed catalogues and make a list of 
varieties to plant for fall and winter use. 

42 



LETTUCE, CELERY, AND PARSLEY 43 

Seed Germination 

Ten seeds for each pupil. 

Determine the percentage of germination. 

Parsley 
Seed Germination 

Twenty or more parsley seeds and five radish seeds 
for each pupil. 

Place both kinds of seeds in the germinating dish. 

Record germination. Determine which kind germi- 
nates first and the difference in time between the germi- 
nation of the radish and the parsley. 

What advantage would there be in planting the two 
kinds of seeds in the same row in the garden? 

Growing Seedlings 

Sow parsley seeds broadcast in a window box in north 
or west window. Seedlings grow slowly and do better 
out of direct sunshine. 

Transplant occasionally to get a good root system. 

In spring plant in outdoor garden. 

Endive and Chicory 

Sow seeds of endive and chicory in the school garden 
or in the home gardens. 

Plant in early spring, as soon as ground is in good 
condition, in rich soil and thin to eight or ten inches 
apart. 



44 



CROP PRODUCTION 



When well grown tie the outer leaves together with 
raffia to blanch the inner ones. 

Some blanched hearts of Chicory as shipped from 
Belgium to America are pictured on page 42. It should 
be easy to grow similar ones here. 




SALAD CROPS 

The three most important Salad Crops are Lettuce, 
Celery, and Parsley. In addition to these, Endive, 
Chicory, Cress, and Water Cress are commonly grown 
in many regions, although they are not so generally 
used as the three first named. 

Lettuce 

Lettuce finds a place in practically all home gardens 
and is grown in vast quantities both indoors and out for 
market. It is one of the most important truck crops in 
market garden regions. Lettuce has been grown as a 
garden plant for thousands of years. The original form 
from which it developed is unknown, though it is sup- 
posed to have come from the Wild or Prickly Lettuce, 
now an introduced weed in America, belonging to the 
great family of Composite plants. 

The form most commonly grown is the Head or Cab- 
bage Lettuce, of which many varieties are offered in every 
seed catalogue. This is in general the most satisfactory 
type either for home use or market. Seeds sown in 
drills in early spring soon develop seedlings that may be 
thinned to six to ten inches apart in order that each may 
have room to head. The soil should be loamy and rich. 
A light application of nitrate of soda when the plants 
are half grown is very helpful. Two or three plantings 
should be made at intervals throughout the summer. 

45 



46 CROP PRODUCTION 

Two other types of Lettuce are of value. The plants 
of the Curly or Grand Rapids Lettuce do not form com- 
pact heads, but have large leaves of value for salads and 
garnishing. The Cos or Romaine Lettuce produces long 
slender heads which are especially valuable for summer 
use, as this type stands hot weather much better than 
the others. It was formerly necessary to tie the leaves 
together near the top to blanch them, but self-closing 
sorts are now available. 




Celery 

Celery is a garden form of Wild Celery, a plant of the 
large Parsley Family, called by botanists Apium graveo- 
lens. The wild form is native to great regions in Europe 
and Asia. The cultivated form has been in use for 
hundreds of years, though it is only during the last half 
century that it has become the universal favorite it now 
is. Before that it was a winter vegetable, grown in 
summer and carried into cellars in autumn to blanch 
before being used. About 1885 two important self- 
blanching sorts, White Plume and Golden Self-blanching, 
were introduced; these were earlier and easier to grow, 



SALAD CROPS 47 

so they were helpful in extending the season and making 
the plant more popular. Many other sorts are now 
known. 

Celery requires good care and a deep, moist, soil rich 
in decaying vegetable matter. The seeds are sown 
early in hot-beds or cold frames and the seedlings thinned 
to an inch apart and later transplanted, at least once 
before the final transplanting to the garden or field. 
At the first transplanting the tap-root should be pinched 
off to induce a strong development of other roots. In 
the garden the transplants are. set six inches or more 
apart in the row, according to the variety. 

Good tillage is given until the plants reach full size 
or nearly so. Then stalks are to be blanched by some 
method that will exclude the light. This used to be 
accomplished by setting the plants in trenches and 
filling the trenches with soil. This is still a good method 
for home gardens where the soil is deep enough. A 
common way is to set the plants in rows four feet apart 
and gradually hill up the sides with earth. Instead of 
this, boards are often used, set vertically along each 
side of the rows, or the plants are set in solid beds and 
boards placed along the outer borders. 

Celery is commonly attacked by Leaf-spot or Early 
Blight. This is a destructive fungous disease that some- 
times causes the loss of more than half the crop. It 
first shows as small, irregular, yellowish green spots 
upon the leaves. These enlarge and become brown and 
soon spread over most of the leaf. Spraying every two 
weeks with Bordeaux mixture is a preventive. 



48 CROP PRODUCTION 

Parsley 

Parsley is a member of the great umbel-bearing family, 
often called the Parsley Family. It is used for flavoring 
soups, stews, and salads, and especially as a garnish in 
serving meats and other foods. It is a biennial, though 
for garden purposes it is treated as a hardy annual. 
Seeds are sown in hot-bed, greenhouse, or window box in 
March, and the seedlings transplanted outdoors in May. 
Or the seed may be sown outdoors as soon as the ground 
is in good condition and thinned to six inches apart in 
the row. 

Parsley is a cool-weather plant, requiring rich, moist 
soil for its best development. In the hottest summer 
weather it does better in shade than in full exposure to 
the sun. Plants may be taken up in autumn and planted 
in window boxes for winter use. The outer leaves and 
leaf-stems are pulled off for use, but care should be 
taken always to leave some to keep the plant growing. 
Three types of leaves are now grown — the Plain, the 
Curled, and the Fern-leaved sorts. The Dwarf Curled 
ones are most popular. 

Cress and Endive 

In city markets small bunches of Water Cress are 
commonly sold for salads and garnishing meat dishes. 
This is a perennial plant found in our brooks and easily 
propagated etcher by seed or cuttings. It thrives best 
along the margins of streams, where the running water 
keeps it clean, healthy, and healthful, but it may be 
grown in almost any moist location where the water 
supply never fails. This is really a much more desirable 



SALAD CROPS 49 

plant than the Garden Cress, which is easily grown in 
spring or fall in rich, moist soil. The leaves of garden 
cress are rather too peppery for most people to enjoy. 

Endive is much more generally used in Europe than 
America. It is used both as a salad plant and as a pot 
herb for greens. For salads the leaves are blanched 
by tying them together. Seed sown very early in spring 
will develop into plants for use in summer, or seed sown 
in early summer will mature for use in autumn. There 
are two principal types — the Curled or Fringed and the 
Broad-leaved Endives. 





PULSE CROPS: BEANS AND PEAS 

Beans 

Types of Seeds 

Collection of seeds of as many varieties as possible, 
gotten together with the help of pupils. 
Learn to know each of these types : 

Pea beans or field beans 

String beans 

Shell beans 

Lima beans 
Make a set of drawings for booklet. 



Seed Germination 

Ten beans for each pupil. 
Determine the percentage of germination. 
Leave seeds in the germinating dish until you can see 
easily these parts : 

Outer skin 

Thickened seed-leaves or cotyledons 

Root 

Plumule or little plant 
Make a drawing for the booklet. 

5° 



BEANS AND PEAS 51 

Root Nodules 'f^ 

Dig up plants carefully. Examine roots to see if 
little whitish nodules are present on them. 

If bean roots in one garden have nodules and those in 
another do not, notice which plants are the more vigorous. 

Enemies 

Find pods affected by pod-spot or anthracnose. Draw. 
Find beans in storage affected by bean weevil. Look 
at the insects through a lens. 

Peas 

Types of Seeds 

Collection of seeds including smooth white field peas, 
smooth blue peas, and wrinkled peas. 
Sort out the peas into these three kinds: 
Smooth field peas 
Smooth blue peas 
Wrinkled peas 
Learn what varieties are generally planted for green 
peas in your neighborhood. 

Seed Germination 

Determine the percentage of germination of the peas 
to be planted in the outdoor garden. 

Pea Weevil 

Find peas in storage that show presence of pea weevil. 
Study through a lens the appearance of the insects 
and the holes they make in the seed. 



52 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Ordering Seeds 

Write an order on your local dealer or one of the seed 
houses for enough peas to plant your garden, naming a 
succession of varieties. 




PULSE CROPS 

Beans 

Two distinct species of Beans are commonly grown for 
garden purposes — the Field or Kidney Bean, Phaseolus 
vulgaris, and the Lima or Sugar Bean, Phaseolus lunatus. 
Both are believed to be natives of tropical America, and 
the typical forms of both are pole or climbing beans, 
although dwarf or bush forms of each are largely grown. 

The Field or Kidney Bean serves two important pur- 
poses. It is largely used both in the condition of the 
ripened dry seeds and in that of the green seeds or pods. 
For shell and string beans both climbing and bush varie- 
ties are grown, the latter being most popular, while for 
the ripened field beans, only bush varieties are grown. 

The Bush String Beans form one of the most important 
vegetable crops. They are commonly divided into the 
Yellow-podded or Wax Beans and the Green-podded 
Beans. The shape of the pods varies greatly in both 
colors, but in all good varieties when well grown the pod 
is thick and meaty and can be easily broken with little 
or no "string" along the inner edge. The seed is com- 
monly planted either in drills or hills in garden practice, 
a succession of sowings being made about three weeks 
apart to produce successive crops. If no pods are 
allowed to ripen the vines will continue to bear a month 
or more. Early varieties of string beans are ready for 
use about seven weeks after planting. 

53 



54 CROP PRODUCTION 

Field beans are planted in rows two feet or more apart, 
the plants being about four inches apart in the row. On 
a large scale the seed is put in with seed drills, special 
care being taken to have the soil in good tilth, so that 
the tillage with hoe and cultivator may be easy and 
effective. After the plants are well grown, shallow 
cultivation only must be given to avoid disturbing the 
bean roots which grow near the soil surface. 

The crop may be harvested by hand and tied in 
"shooks," but those who grow many acres generally 
use a two-wheeled bean harvester which does the work 
very rapidly, cutting off the stems close to the ground 
and leaving the vines in windrows. The pods were 
formerly shelled by hand flails, but in the more important 
bean-growing regions they are now threshed by special 
machines called "beaners." A yield of twenty-five 
bushels of shelled beans per acre is a good crop. 

As the Bush Beans have largely taken the place of the 
Pole Beans for garden and held growth, so the Bush 
Lima Beans have taken the place of the Pole Limas in 
our gardens. There are three types of these Bush 
Limas, corresponding to the three types of Pole Limas: 
the large flat-seeded type, represented by Burpee's Bush 
Lima; the medium, thick, or potato-seeded type, 
represented by Dreer's Bush Lima, and the small seeded 
type, represented by Henderson's Bush Lima. The 
last named is the best for northern regions as it is earlier 
and hardier than the others. 

All the beans belong to the great Legume Family and 
have the power of fixing nitrogen from the air by means 
of bacterial nodules on their roots. In most gardens 
where beans are grown the necessary germs are likely to 



BEANS AND PEAS 55 

be present, but in soils where few nodules develop upon 
the bean roots it will be worth while to experiment with 
inoculation by means of special cultures. This ability 
of the bean to fix free nitrogen should be taken in con- 
sideration when planning for fertilizers. A loamy soil 
with a fair amount of humus is likely to require only 
potash and phosphoric acid for the growth of beans. The 
crop thrives on a clover sod plowed and put in good tilth. 
A soil too rich in nitrogen is likely to produce vines 
rather than seeds. In garden culture, however, it is 
sometimes worth while to hasten the early growth by 
a little nitrate of soda or similar fertilizer. 

Beans being of tropical origin are essentially warm- 
weather crops. They are tender to frost and the seed 
rots in cold, wet soil. Consequently planting should be 
delayed until the soil is well warmed and the danger 
from frost is past. Lima Beans require more time to 
mature than the ordinary sorts and so should be given 
the sunniest location, especially in northern regions. 

Enemies 

Anthracnose, Pod-spot, or Rust as it is variously known 
is the most destructive fungous disease of the Bean. It 
shows on the young pods in the shape of small reddish 
brown spots that soon increase in size and become 
blackish in the center. The pod shrinks and the young 
beans inside often shrivel up so as to be of little value. 
The disease is most destructive in wet seasons and 
its spores are easily distributed if the vines arc hoed 
or cultivated when they are wet. Consequently they 
should be tilled only when dry. The spores winter 
over on the diseased seeds, which start the infection the 



56 CROP PRODUCTION 

season after. Consequently an important preventive 
measure is to choose seed from fields or pods in which 
the disease is not present. 

The Bean Weevil is about the only insect enemy that 
is generally destructive to this crop. The eggs are laid 
inside the green pods by the small brown beetles. The 
larvae that hatch from these eggs feed upon the beans 
for about a month; then they change again to beetles. 
They are able to develop also in dry stored beans, but 
are easily destroyed in these by fumigation with carbon 
bisulphid. 

Peas 

While the garden bean is a tender plant from tropical 
regions requiring a warm soil and season for thrifty 
growth, the Garden Pea is a hardy plant from northern 
regions requiring a cool soil and climate for its best 
growth. Peas have been cultivated for more than 
twenty centuries and probably were originally grown 
as garden plants in Asia, where the Wild Pea, Pisum 
sativum, is a native species. The characters have been 
so greatly modified that the garden varieties now grown, 
are great improvements over the original form. There 
are dwarf, medium, and tall sorts, and those with small 
or large seeds and pods. The Field Pea, grown for forage, 
is ranked as a special variety of the garden species. 

The Garden Peas are commonly divided into two 
principal groups — the Smooth-seeded and the Wrinkled- 
seeded Peas. The Smooth-seeded sorts are firmer and 
hardier; the seed can be planted very early with little 
danger of rotting in the ground, but the resulting crop 
is poor in quality and soon becomes too hard to be 



BEANS AND PEAS 57 

relished. The Wrinkled-seeded sorts are softer and more 
tender; if planted too early the seed is likely to rot in 
the soil, but the quality of the crop is very good and the 
peas remain on the vines in good condition for some time. 
Practically it is scarcely worth while to plant the smooth 
sorts, like Alaska, except to get two or three very early 
pickings. The smooth sorts may be planted as soon as 
the frost is out of the ground, but the others should 
not be planted until two or three weeks later. 

Culture 

The most approved way of planting Peas is to have two 
parallel rows about six inches apart, with about two 
feet distance between each double set. Then in the case 
of the taller sorts, brush may be placed in the six-inch 
space and serve for both rows, or in the case of medium 
or dwarf forms the vines will support one another. For 
early crops the dwarf varieties are planted, and for late 
the tall ones, though many people prefer to plant for 
midseason and late crops a succession of such a splendid 
variety as the Telephone. Peas thrive best on a light, 
loamy soil. On a heavy soil, especially if rich in nitro- 
gen, they are likely to run to vine rather than to pods. 
A little quick-acting fertilizer in the rows at planting 
time helps to get the seedlings well started. 

Enemies 

The most destructive fungous diseases of Peas are the 
Spot and the Powdery Mildew. The Spo*. attacks stems, 
leaves, and pods, forming characteristic blackish blotches 
and interfering with the growth of the plant. The 



58 



CROP PRODUCTION 



planting of seed from fields free from the disease and 
adequate rotation are the chief preventive measures. 
The Powdery Mildew is often troublesome late in the 
season and in rather moist climates. The methods of 
preventing the Spot disease are also helpful for this. 

The most destructive insect enemies of Peas are the 
Pea Aphis and the Pea Weevil. The Aphis, fortunately, 
is only abundant during occasional years and ordinarily 
is not troublesome. The Weevil is more regular in ap- 
pearance. Its life-history is similar to that of the bean 
weevil. If all the pea weevils present in a locality in 
spring are destroyed by concerted action in fumigating 
stored peas with carbon bisulphid, there will be little 
trouble from the pest. » 





VINE CROPS: SQUASHES, MELONS, AND CUCUMBERS 

Squashes 

Types 

Samples of different varieties or mounted pictures 
from seed catalogues of different types of squashes. 

Let each pupil name the types that he has seen in 
garden, cellar, or market. 

Seed Germination 
Ten seeds of squash, pumpkin, or cucumber for each 
pupil. 

Leave in the germinating dish until the root is an inch 
long. 

Study the sprouting seeds to find these parts: 
Outer seed-coat 
Inner seed-coat 
Seed-leaves or cotyledons 
Plumule 

Growing Seedlings 

Plant twenty or more seeds in a window box or indi- 
vidual flower pots. 

When the seedlings come up, watch to see how the 
plant gets out of the seed-coat. 

59 



6o 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Write a story telling what you see and illustrate the 
story by drawings. 

Enemies {May to October) 

Find eggs and the various stages of the black squash- 
bugs. Try the plan of trapping the adults in early 
summer by placing old shingles or boards near the plants. 
Look under these early in the morning to find the bugs. 

Find examples of striped or spotted cucumber-beetles. 
Try cheap tobacco powder as a repellent. 




VINE CROPS 

The Vine Crops belong to the great family of Cucur- 
bits (Cucurbitaceae) . The native home of most species 
of this group is in tropical regions, where an abundance 
of warmth and moisture furnish ideal conditions for 
growth through long seasons. So it is natural to find 
these plants easily injured by frost and unable to grow 
in cold soil. They require the warmest summer weather 
for their development, and in northern regions must be 
given every possible advantage in inducing a rapid start 
and an early maturity. 

The principal Vine Crops are easily separated into three 
important groups — the Cucumbers and Muskmelons 
of the genus Cucumis, in which the short-stalked pollen- 
bearing flowers are borne in clusters; the Squashes and 
Pumpkins of the genus Cucurbita, in which the long- 
stalked pollen-bearing flowers are solitary; and the 
Watermelons of the genus Citrullus, in which the 
pollen-bearing flowers are also solitary, but borne on 
short stalks. 

In all members of the family the pollen-bearing, or 
staminate, and fruit-producing, or pistillate, flowers are 
separated, though borne upon the same vine. The 
pollen is carried from one kind of flower to the other 
chiefly by bees, especially bumble bees, which are very 
useful in this way. 

61 



62 CROP PRODUCTION 

Cucumbers and Muskmelons 

The Cucumber is a standard crop in every garden. 
It can be grown in a shorter season than the other 
Vine Crops, both because it is eaten green and because 
it matures more quickly. The fruits for pickling are 
pulled when quite small and those for eating fresh as 
soon as they reach full size. The Cucumber is one of 
the most important truck crops, especially in the south, 
from whence vast quantities are shipped north in winter 
and early spring. It is also an important crop for 
forcing houses in the north. Colonies of bees are kept 
in the Cucumber houses to bring about the pollination 
of the blossoms. 

The Muskmelons are so variable in form and structure 
that they have been separated into several groups, of 
which the Cantaloupes and the Netted Muskmelons are 
the most important commercially. In the Cantaloupe 
the rind is hard and generally rough or scaly, while in 
the Netted or Nutmeg Muskmelons the rind is softer 
and netted or reticulated on the outside. The famous 
Rocky Ford melons are typical examples of the netted 
type, which includes the most popular varieties now 
grown. In certain regions the crop of these melons is 
the most important product of the soil. 

Squashes, Pumpkins, and Gourds 

The Squashes, Pumpkins, and Gourds are closely 
related plants, the first named being the most important 
as a vegetable. Two types of Squashes are commonly 
grown — the Bush or Summer and the Running or Winter 
Squashes. The Summer Squashes are related to the 



SQUASHES, MELONS, AND CUCUMBERS 63 



Pumpkin. They vary greatly in form, some having the 

shape of a Pumpkin, others having a long crook-neck, 

and others having an outline 

suggestive of a pineapple. The 

vines of these run little or 

not at all, and so the hills 

may be planted only about 

four feet apart. The Winter 

Squashes vary also in form, 

the Hubbard, shown on page 

60, and the Turban, shown on 

this page, being two of the 

,. ,. ,. , rpi Turban Squash 

most distinctive types. Ine 

vines of these run so far that the hills must be about 

eight feet apart. 




Watermelons 

Most Vine Crops appear to be native to tropical 
America., but the Watermelon is native to tropical Africa. 

It is now grown in our 
southern states to a 
greater extent than 
elsewhere, vast quan- 
tities being shipped 
to northern markets 
every year. The long 
warm season and light 
soil of many southern 
regions afford ideal 
conditions for Water- 
melons to develop, 
but even in the short seasons of the northern states 




Developing Hubbard Squash, Show- 
ing Withered Flower 



64 



CROP PRODUCTION 



certain selected varieties may be brought to maturity, 
especially if the seedlings are started early in the hot- 
bed or greenhouse. The Citron Melon is a special type 
of the Watermelon which is grown for preserving. 



Enemies 



The 
several 



Vine Crops are subject to serious injury by 
insects. As soon as they come up they are 
likely to find the Cucumber-beetles and 
the Black Squash-bug waiting to attack 
them. When the true leaves develop 
they are liable to attract the little Melon 
Aphis, and when the stems begin to 
lengthen the Squash-vine borer is likely to 
feed upon them. 

\ There are two kinds of Cucumber- 

TOW / beetles — the Striped, more common in the 
' north, and the Spotted, more common 
in the south. Both attack Melons, 
Squashes, and Pumpkins as well as 
Cucumbers. They eat the leaves and 
stems of the young plants and deposit eggs that 
hatch into larvae that burrow through the roots. Using 
cloth or wire screens over the young vines until they are 
well started is a helpful measure. So is a heavy mulch- 
ing of refuse tobacco powder or an application of Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

About the only way to get ahead of the Black Squash- 
bugs is to place shingles or short boards near the plants: 
the bugs will seek these for shelter at night and may be 
collected early in the morning. 




Squash Bug 
Magnified 



SQUASHES, MELONS AND CUCUMBERS 65 



Vine Crops 



Cucumbers -i 



f Field 



Forcing 



Genus Cuciimis 



Uuskmelons C T antal ? Upe 

I Netted or nutmeg 

f Pumpkins 

Genus Cucurbita Gourd s 

\ r. , J Summer or Bush 

( Squashes .... 

I Winter or Running 

Genus Citrulhis I Watermelon 
I Citron melon 





SOLANACEOUS CROPS: TOMATO, PEPPER, 
AND EGGPLANT 

Tomato 

Seed Testing 

Ten or more seeds for each pupil. 
Find the percentage of germination. 

Growing Seedlings 

Start seedlings in window box in February or March. 
Transplant to three-inch paper pots when they have 
two or three true leaves. 

Pepper 

Growing Seedlings 

Start seedlings in window boxes, hot-beds, or cold 
frames in March or April. 

Transplant when they have two or three true leaves. 
Set out in the garden when danger from frost is past. 



66 



THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY 

The Nightshade Family {Solanaceae) includes the 
Potato, Tomato, Pepper, Eggplant, Husk Tomato, and 
many wild plants. The Potato differs from the others in 
that it is the tuber rather than the fruit which is used for 
food, and so it has already been considered as a tuber 
crop. 

The three important solanaceous crops whose fruits 
are used for food — Tomato, Pepper, and Eggplant — 
are native to tropical regions. Consequently they are 
tender to frost and yet require a long season for develop- 
ment. So the seedlings must be started in greenhouse, 
hot-bed, or window garden, that the young plants may be 
set out when danger from frost is past. They require 
hot weather for their best growth and should be given a 
good start at the time of transplanting by means of a 
rich soil or nitrogenous fertilizer or both. They should 
be started under glass one or two months before the time 
they are to be set out. 

The Tomato 

The various forms of the cultivated Tomato are de- 
rived from a plant native to the western part of South 
America. Although the plant has been in cultivation 
for more than three centuries, it is only during compara- 
tively recent years that it has been generally used for 
food. It has now reached a high degree of development, 

67 



68 



CROP PRODUCTION 



with many distinct types of plant and fruit and a great 

number of varieties. 

The garden culture of Tomatoes is very simple. The 

plants are set out in May three to three and a half or four 

feet apart and given good 
tillage until the fruit is 
well set. It is better to 
hold the plants up with 
some support, either ty- 
ing to stakes or using 
various forms of trellises. 
It is generally worth while 
to fasten a bit of stiff 
paper around the stalk of 
the plant when it is set 
out to prevent injury by 
cutworms. 

The Tomato has lately 
become an important 
truck crop. Great quan- 
Tomato in Paper Flower Pot t [ t [ es are g r0W n in the 

south every winter for shipment to northern markets. 
It has also become an important greenhouse crop 
near large cities in the north. 




Pepper and Eggplant 

The Red Pepper is also a native of tropical America 
and was first discovered by Europeans when Columbus 
made his most famous voyage. It is often called Chili 
Pepper and belongs to the genus Capsicum. There are 
now many types and varieties, though the botanists 
think that originally there were only one or two wild 



TOMATO, PEPPER, AND EGG PLANT 69 

species. In garden culture the treatment is much like 
that of Tomatoes, though no supports are needed. It 
is a simple matter for any one to grow enough of these 
Peppers for home use. 

The Eggplant is more difficult to grow than either the 
Tomato or the Pepper. It is essentially a tropical species 
and requires much hot weather to develop properly. 
It is grown to a considerable extent in the southern 
states, but very little in the northern. The plants require 
an early start and rapid growth for succcessful results. 




II 



FLOWER CROPS 





From The Flower Beautiful 

China Asters in a Bamboo Wall Holder 




ANNUAL FLOWERS 

Nasturtium 
Flower Structure 
A flower for each pupil. 
Study the structure of the flower. Find these parts: 

The outer sepals 

The colored petals 

The nectar spur 

The stamens 

The pistils 
Find out what part develops into the seed-pod. 
Draw a side view of a flower. 

Seed Harvest (Summer and Autumn) 
Gather ripe pods from garden. Store for future use. 
See the difference between the outer pod and the inner 
seed. • 

Growing Seedlings Indoors 
Sow seeds of the dwarf nasturtiums in a sunny window. 
Dig up part of the seedlings for drawings; leave some 
to grow. 

73 



74 CROP PRODUCTION 

California Poppy 
Flower Structure 
Study buds and blossoms in garden or newly-picked 
in schoolroom. See: 

The sepals that fall off as the flower opens 

The petals 

The stamens 

The pistils 

The various stages of the seed-pod 

Seed Harvest 

Collect seed-pods in autumn. Store for sowing in 
early spring. 

Seed Planting (Spring) 

Early in spring sow the seeds sparingly in a little drill 
or furrow along the border of the flower garden. 

Thin the seedlings to six or eight inches apart. 

Keep the surface of the soil stirred and free from 
weeds. 

In a garden where the flower grew the season before 
there are likely to be so many self-sown seedlings that 
sowing the seed is not necessary. 

Pansy 

Flower Sliow 

Early in autumn or late in spring plan for a Pansy 
Show. 

Let each pupil bring in a few attractive pansy flowers 
of as many colors as possible. 

Invite parents or friends to send others. Have draw- 
ings of pansies on the blackboard and colored drawings 
mounted on paper. 



ANNUAL FLOWERS 75 

Let pupils mount colored pictures from seed catalogues. 
Let pupils make dainty invitations to give their friends. 

Drummond Phlox 
Planting Outdoors (Spring) 
Early in May plant a package of seed in a row in the 
school garden, covering lightly. 

When the seedlings are large enough to transplant let 
each pupil who has a place to grow them take a few home. 

Sweet Peas 
Flower Show (Early A utumn) 
A sweet pea flower show is well worth having in Sep- 
tember, soon after the fall term opens. Have pupils 
and friends bring in as many kinds as possible. 

Decorate the room with blackboard drawings of sweet 
peas and mounted plates from seed catalogues. 

Label as many exhibits as possible with the name of 
the variety. 

Germination Test 
Shortly before it is time to sow sweet peas outdoors, 
let pupils test the germination of a few of the seeds they 
are going to plant. Always test all old seeds saved from 
the year before. 

Growing Indoors 

Plant seeds in late autumn or early winter in a win- 
dow box in a sunny window. Select varieties used for 
forcing in greenhouses. Earliest of All is a good one for 
the purpose. 

Water carefully. Furnish support. In a few weeks 
the plants will blossom. Use for drawing and language. 



ANNUAL FLOWERS 

Annual flowers are very satisfactory garden crops. 
The seed costs but little and the yield in beautiful blos- 
soms follows soon after planting. Most of them can 
be grown in such limited space that no one need lack 
them even if a garden is not available. A box or a 
barrel may be made to produce a host of blossoms. 
There is space here to discuss only a few of the most 
popular of these flowers. 

Nasturtiums 

Three common types of Nasturtiums are grown in 
our gardens. The most popular of these, perhaps, is 
the Dwarf Nasturtium, which has smooth, shiny leaves 
and beautiful irregular flowers. 

The next in popularity is probably the Tall or 
Climbing Nasturtium, which differs from the Dwarf 
chiefly in its climbing stems and larger habit. 

The third type is the Lobb's Nasturtium, which is 
known at once by its hairy leaves and stems : it is also 
a climbing sort. 

These Nasturtiums are all natives of South America 
and belong to the genus Tropceolum. They are tender 
annuals of the easiest culture and yield a profusion of 
beautiful flowers, colored in tones of yellow, orange, 
and red. 

76 



ANNUAL FLOWERS 



77 



The California Poppy 

The California Poppy or Eschscholtzia is a native of 
California and Oregon recently introduced as a cultivated 
flower. It is a low spreading plant, reaching a height 
of twenty inches, with finely cut, glaucous foliage and 
large single flowers that 
were originally yellow, but 
are now developed into 
white, orange, red, and 
striped sorts. The sepals 
are united into a cap, 
which is dropped off when 
the petals open. Though 
originally a perennial, it is 
treated as a hardy annual 
in cultivation, the seed 
being sown where the 
plants are to flower as the 
seedlings are hard to trans- 
plant successfully. It is 
especially useful for the 
border of a garden. 

The Pansy 

The Pansy has been cultivated for so many centuries 
that the history of its origin is unknown. It is believed, 
however, to have originated from the Tricolored Violet 
(Viola tricolor), a charming little wild plant, abundant in 
Europe and parts of America. Like other violets this is 
a perennial, as is the Pansy when left to itself. 

In garden practice the Pansy does best when treated 
as an annual, growing new plants from seed every year 




California Poppy 



78 CROP PRODUCTION 

and discarding them when the best blossoming period 
is past. The seed may be sown late in summer or early 
in autumn for spring flowering or in spring for late sum- 
mer and autumn flowering. The Pansy does not thrive 
in direct sunshine in the hot weather of midsummer, 
but at other times it enjoys full exposure to the sun. 
The best Pansy seed is raised by specialists, who use great 
care in selecting strains and varieties. 

The Drummond Phlox 

The various varieties of the Drummond Phlox are 
desirable garden annuals. They are derived from the 
original wild form found in Texas by the botanist Drum- 
mond, who sent the seed to England in 1836. Its beauty 
was at once recognized and numerous color variations 
were soon developed: white, pink, rose, lilac, scarlet, 
crimson and many combinations of these colors are now 
available. Variations in form have also developed, the 
most striking being the Star Phlox, in which the centers 
of the petals are prolonged into curious rays. 

Phloxes are especially desirable for cut flowers and for 
massing along borders. They grow readily in sunny 
situations from seed sown outdoors after the early frosts, 
and bear transplanting as well. 

The True Poppies 

Three distinct species and a great number of varieties 
of annual Poppies are in cultivation. The most popular 
are forms of the Corn Poppy, a wild plant native to 
Europe. The Shirley Poppies are the most beautiful of 
these. The leaves and stems of this type are small and 
slender and thickly covered with fine hairs. The flowers 



ANNUAL FLOWERS 79 

will bear cutting and placing in water, though they last 
but a short time. 

The forms that rank next in popularity have been 
derived from the Opium Poppy of the Orient, one of the 
oldest of cultivated flowers. The leaves and stems of 
this type are thick and succulent and have a smooth, 
hairless, glaucous surface. A great variety of single and 
double flowers belong to this group, some of the most 
beautiful being the Mikado, Snowdrift, and Fairy Blush. 

The third species, the Iceland Poppy, is really a peren- 
nial, but in garden practice is classed as an annual. It is 
a plant with small leaves and slender leafless stems, a 
native of arctic regions, where it is often very abundant. 
All these Poppies are excellent for flower borders. They 
do not bear transplanting well, so the seed should be 
sown very early in spring where the plants are wanted. 
The seeds are small and care must be taken to cover very 
lightly if at all. 

The Sweet Pea 

The Sweet Pea appears to have been in cultivation 
for more than three centuries. Originally a native of 
Sicily, the Wild Sweet Pea was improved by a great 
many flower lovers until in 1876 there were many good 
varieties. In that year, however , Henry Eckford of Shrop- 
shire, England, began experimenting with it, and con- 
tinued for the rest of the century. During this time he 
originated nearly a hundred new varieties, which were 
wonderful improvements over the older ones. Conse- 
quently a large proportion of the Sweet Peas now grown 
are Eckford introductions. There are several distinct 
types of flowers and many beautiful colors. 



8o 



CROP PRODUCTION 



The culture of Sweet Peas is simple, provided the 
seed is planted very early in spring. This is done in 
order that the roots may get a good development during 
the cool weather of April and May. A rich soil is de- 
sirable, though if too much nitrogen is present the plants 
are likely to run to vines rather than to flowers. The 
drill for planting should be hollowed out three or four 
inches deep and the seeds covered with an inch of soil. 
After the plants are several inches high the little trench 
may be filled in level. Birch or other brush, wire netting 
or some similar support must be given as soon as the 
vines begin to run. The flowers must be picked off, as 
the plants soon stop blossoming if the flowers are allowed 
to go to seed. 




His ^Js 


H 8( 






Ert^i:''* •"">*? 









ANNUAL FLOWERS: THE COMPOSITES 

Cosmos and Others 
Flower Show {Autumn) 

Have a little exhibit of the composite annual flowers 
■ — Cosmos, China Asters, Marigolds, Bachelor's Buttons, 
Zinnias, and others. 

Separate the different sorts of flowers and label each 
sort. 

Many pictures and suggestions as to arrangement may 
be found in The Flower Beautiful. Try to get a wall 
vase for the school. One is shown with China Asters in 
the picture on page 72. 

Growing Seedlings (Spring) 

Early in May sow seed of cosmos in a row outdoors. 

Keep the soil moist and free from weeds. 

When the seedlings are about three inches high, dig 
up to transplant into the school garden or the home 
gardens of pupils. 



82 CROP PRODUCTION 

China Asters 

Flower Types {Autumn) 

Bring in various aster blooms and compare them to 
see likes and unlikes. 

A perfect aster of any of the double varieties should 
be double to the center. See which have this character. 

Seed Harvest {Autumn) 

Mark several perfect blossoms by tying a bit of string 
or raffia around the stem. Leave these flowers on the 
plant. 

When the petals have withered, pick the flower heads 
and pull off the seeds to store away and sow next spring. 

Growing Seedlings {Spring) 

Early in spring sow aster seeds outdoors in one or 
more rows. Sow the seeds about half an inch apart 
and cover with a third of an inch of fine soil. 

Keep the ground moist and free from weeds. 

When the seedlings have four or five leaves, transplant 
to flower borders at school or home. 

Make drawings of the seedlings for the flower booklet. 

Marigolds 
Harvesting Seeds {Autumn) 

Gather the ripened flower heads of the marigolds in 
the garden and remove the seeds. Save in a box, keep- 
ing in an unheated room where mice cannot get at the 

seeds. 



THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 83 

Growing Plants Indoors 

Sow seeds of dwarf marigold in a window box, cover- 
ing lightly. 

When the plants have two true leaves in addition to 
the seed leaves, transplant into small paper flower pots, 
one for each pupil. 

Let pupils water and care for the plants until they 
bloom. Then let each take his own home. 

Growing Seedlings (Spring) 

Sow seeds of both types of marigolds in the school 
garden early in May. 

Keep the soil moist and free from weeds. 

When the seedlings have two or three true leaves, let 
such pupils as have places to grow flowers take the seed- 
lings home to transplant in their home gardens. 

Make drawings for the flower booklet. 




THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 

The great family of composite plants of which the 
sunflower, thistle, and daisy are familiar examples in- 
cludes several of the most beautiful annuals. The type 
of flower in this family is capable of great variation 
through the modification of the form, size, and color of 
the little florets crowded together in a head. Conse- 
quently in most of the annuals belonging to the composite 
family there are many types of form and color. Five 
of the most important of these flowers are the Cosmos, 
China Aster, Marigolds, Bachelor's Button, and Zinnia. 

Cosmos 

The Cosmos is one of the newest garden annuals. It 
was introduced only during later years of the nineteenth 
century. Mexico was the original home of the plant. 
The varieties first offered grew very tall and bloomed 
very late, but by careful selection dwarf earlier-flowering 
forms were soon developed. Most of these bore white, 
pink, or crimson flowers and were derived from the species 
called Cosmos bipinnatus, but lately new forms derived 
from the yellow-flowered Cosmos sulphurous, also a 
native of Mexico, have been introduced. The variety 
Klondike is a hybrid between the two species. The 
largest flower yet produced is shown by the beautiful 
pink variety Lady Lenox. 

8 4 



THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 



85 



The Cosmos is one of the most useful annuals either for 
border gardens or interior decoration. Seed may be sown in 
good loamy soil as soon 
as the early frosts are 
past, and the vigorous 
young seedlings trans- 
planted about three 
feet apart along a wall, 
fence, or the open 
border. They grow 
rapidly. It is often 
desirable to pinch out 
the terminal bud of the 
main stalk in order to 
induce a spreading 
bushy habit. It is well 
to plant the late flow- 
ering sorts in a sunny 
sheltered corner where the early frosts of autumn will 
not harm them. 

China Asters 

China Aster seeds were sent from China to France 
about 1730. A little later they were introduced into 
England and America. These early flowers were single 
forms, resembling an Ox-eye daisy in structure. The 
various double types now grown have been developed 
since. The modern Giant Comet and Ostrich Plume 
types are wonderfully beautiful and should be grown by 
every lover of flowers. 

The natural season for these Asters is early autumn, 
the time when they are most needed in the borders. 




Cosmos Flowers 



86 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Seed sown in drills outdoors early in May will soon de- 
velop into vigorous seedlings which may be transplanted 
to the bed or border where the blossoms are wanted. 



Great numbers of Asters are 
florists in the cut-flower trade. 




China Asters 
The Comet Type 

Marigolds 



grown to be sold by 
For this purpose long 
stems and perfect 
flowers are necessary. 
The buds are some- 
times eaten by blister 
beetles, which should 
be collected and killed. 
The plants are likely 
to suffer from a sort 
of blight if grown re- 
peatedly in the same 
soil. To prevent this, 
rotation and careful 
seed selection are nec- 
essary. The China 
Aster is called by 
botanists Callistcphus 
Iwrtcnsis. 



Two distinct species of Marigolds are commonly culti- 
vated; the Tall Marigold is Tagetes erecta; the Dwarf or 
French Marigold is Tagetes patula. Both have been in 
cultivation for more than three centuries and have been 
developed into many varieties. 

The colors of the Tall form range only through yellow 
and orange, while those of the French range through 
yellow, orange, brown, and red. The color tones are 



THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 



87 



remarkably rich. There are single and double varieties 
in both species. The Dwarf forms are desirable for 
bedding purposes, while the Tall forms are better suited 
to irregular borders, where the flowers make a brilliant 
show from August to Octo- 
ber. 

The culture of both is 
easy: sow the seed outdoors 
in spring when danger from 
frost is past and transplant 
the seedlings when two or 
three inches high to the 
place where they are to 
bloom. The marigolds have 
so strong an odor that they 
are not much used for cut 
flowers. 

Bachelor's Button and 
Zinnia 

The Bachelor's Button is 

one of the most popular Marigolds in a Wall Flower- 
Pocket 
hardy annuals. The many 

varieties have been developed from a plant native 

to southeastern Europe called by botanists Can la urea 

cyanus. The flowers range to many colors of unusual 

purity of tone, held on long slender stalks that give 

them a very decorative effect. They are of easiest 

culture outdoors and extremely useful for cut flowers 

and border gardens. 

The Zinnia is often called Youth and Old Age. The 

original single form was Zinnia elegans, a native of 




88 CROP PRODUCTION 

Mexico. Double varieties were developed in France 
about i860. Since then many new sorts have been 
introduced. The flowers are remarkable for their range 
of colors, though these are largely hard and metallic 
rather than soft and pleasing. The flowers also are 
rather stiff and often do not appeal to cultivated tastes. 
Seed is sown in spring out of doors, the young seedlings 
being transplanted later to the border garden where 
they are to flower. 





HARDY PERENNIAL FLOWERS 

Columbines 

Growing Seedlings {Spring) 

A collection of columbines is especially desirable for 
the school border garden. 

Sow the seed sparsely in a drill early in spring, cover 
lightly, and keep well watered. 

When the seedlings are well up, thin to five inches 
apart, transplanting those taken up to another row. 

Early the next spring transplant to permanent posi- 
tions in the border, leaving ten inches between the plants. 

Give surplus plants to pupils. 



Harvesting Seed (Summer) 

As the columbine blossoms fade they are followed by 
the characteristic seed-pods. Cut these off after they 
begin to ripen but before they split open. Lay them in 
a box and when they split open thresh out the seeds. 

Save some of the seed for future planting in the school 
garden. Give the rest to such pupils as will agree to 
plant at home. 

89 



go CROP PRODUCTION 

Peony 
Border Bed 
Plant peony roots late in autumn or early in the spring 
in a partially shaded part of border. 
Have the soil deep and very rich. 

Flowers for Decoration 

Cut the blossoms a little before they are ready to open. 
Place in water in a flower bowl and keep out of direct 
sunshine. 

Give the peony bowl plenty of room for display. Do 
not crowd it on a table with many other things. 

Perennial Phlox 

This is a good plant for the border garden of the school. 
If there is a long vacation in summer cut off the tops of 
the plants in June so that there will be a crop of blossoms 
in September. 

Irises 
Border Garden Collection 

Be sure to start a collection of Irises for the border 
garden. It is probable that garden owners who have 
plants will willingly contribute two or three. Get as 
many sorts as possible. 

After the plants have been established a year or two 
they may be divided to advantage, and soon the school 
will be able to distribute many to the homes of the pupils. 

Flowers for Decoration 

Irises are particularly effective for indoor decoration. 
Cut the stalks just before the first flowers begin to open 



THE HARDY PERENNIALS 



9i 



and pull off each day afterwards the faded blossoms. 
The buds will open in succession. Do not crowd the 
Iris flowers in the vase or flower jar. 

Sunflower Family Exhibit 

For one week in autumn arrange an exhibit of as many 
kinds of flowers of the composite type as you can get. 
Use both wild and cultivated sorts. The list might 
include any of these: Asters, Boltonias, Chrysanthemums, 
Coreopsis, Coneflowers, Dahlias, Daisies, Goldenrods, 
and Sunflowers. Some Coreopsis flowers are pictured 
on page 89. 









Si* ^ 




F^lr 


■^v ?^S*<9! 


CV* 


<EESP 


fci 



THE HARDY PERENNIALS 

The Hardy Perennials form one of the most important 
groups of flowering plants. They have the great ad- 
vantage over the annuals in that when once planted 
under favorable conditions they will continue to thrive 
for many years, yielding with each new season a display 
of foliage and flowers that is of greatest importance 
in beautifying the landscape or decorating the home. 
There are so many of these plants now available to gar- 
deners that we can here study only a few of the most 
important types. 

Columbines and Anemones 

For delicate grace of structure and exquisite beauty 
of color few perennial flowers can rival the Aquilegias 
or Columbines. The native Wild or Canada Columbine 
is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains and 
closely related forms are found on the Pacific Coast. 
Many other species from this and other countries have 
been introduced to garden culture as well as many 
hybrids developed by horticulturists. In some forms 
the nectar spurs are very long, giving the flower an 
extremely decorative effect. The Columbines thrive in 
moist soil or sandy loam with full exposure to sunshine. 

The Japanese Anemones or Windflowers are attractive 
border plants on account of the large white or pink 
blossoms that appear in August or later in the season. 

92 




Peonies in a Flower Jar 



93 



94 CROP PRODUCTION 

The flowers are held singly on the ends of erect branch- 
ing stalks that rise a foot or more above the main foliage. 
Some varieties are single, others semi-double, and others 
very double. The flowers last well when cut for indoor 
use and the plants are hardy even in the more northern 
states. 

Peonies 

The Peony is one of the oldest, hardiest, and most 
showy of border perennials. One form at least is be- 
lieved to have been grown for thousands of years, and 
more than two hundred distinct varieties are now in 
cultivation. Most of these have been developed from a 
wild Peony native to Siberia, either directly or through 
hybridizing with a few other species native to Europe 
and Asia. The flowers vary greatly in color, the tones 
ranging from white through all possible tints and shades 
of red, violet, lilac, and purple. They vary so in form 
that they are arranged in eight distinct classes, thus: 

Single Crown 

Japanese Bomb 

Anemone Semi-rose 

Semi-double Rose or Double 

These several types represent the various stages, from 
a single flower with a row of petals around the outside and 
clusters of stamens and pistils inside to the fully double 
form in which both stamens and pistils have been trans- 
formed into petal-like bodies called petaloids. 

The color tones of Peony petals are so delicate that 
they soon fade when exposed to direct sunshine. Con- 
sequently the flowers remain in good condition longer 
when the plants are in partial shade. A border on the 



THE HARDY PERENNIALS 



95 



north or east of trees or shrubs is a good place for Peonies. 
They require a very rich soil: before planting the bed 
should be dug out to a 
depth of three feet and a 
good compost placed in the 
bottom. Newly set plants do 
not reach their full develop- 
ment for several years, so 
that when once established 
they should not be disturbed 
for a long time. The blos- 
soming period extends 
through May and June. The 
flowers develop to best ad- 
vantage if the stems are cut 
before the bud opens and 
placed in water in a cool room 
away from direct sunshine. 

Peonies are multiplied by Perennial Phlox 

divisions of the erect, thickened rootstocks. 



. 




%/ ijy/' 







Phloxes and Irises 

The Perennial Phloxes deserve the popularity they 
have long had as favorite flowers for border gardens. 
They are inexpensive and easy to establish and the 
plants continue thrifty for many years. The long 
panicles of lovely blossoms make a very attractive 
display out of doors and remain in good condition for 
many days when cut for indoor decoration. They 
multiply by division at the root, so that a good-sized 
clump will furnish many new plants. Seedlings are not 
so likely to yield good flowers. Phloxes thrive best in 



9 6 



CROP PRODUCTION 



a rich, moist soil. Their season of bloom may be pro- 
longed by cutting off the flowering shoots before the 
petals fade. The prevailing colors are red, white, pink 
and purple, with many combinations of these. 

The Irises are among the most beautiful of all flowers. 
The broadly expanded petals appearing in succession 

upon the tall stems combine 
with the sword-like foliage 
to make one of the most 
decorative of floral combina- 
tions. There are many sorts 
of Irises: they are common- 
ly classified into two groups 
according to the nature of 
their roots. Some Irises 
grow from bulbs: these are 
the Bulbous Irises; other 
Irises grow from rootstocks 
or rhizomes: these are the 
Rootstock Irises. The Bulb- 
ous Irises include the 
Spanish Irises and the 
English Irises, but are com- 
paratively unimportant. 

The German Iris is the 
most familiar type of the 
Rootstock Irises. It has long 
been a favorite flower and 
has stayed in cultivation for years in many old-fashioned 
gardens. It has many varieties, with the colors of the 
flowers showing exquisite tones of yellow, violet, purple, 
blue, and red. The Siberian Iris is a taller, more 




Oriental Irises in a Japanese 
Flower Jar 



THE HARDY PERENNIALS 97 

slender type, which is good to plant just back of the 
German varieties. The Japanese Irises are the largest 
of the group, splendid flowers held on stems which are 
often three or four feet long. There are also many 
other less common types of Irises, most of which are 
beautiful. The flowers of all will open in succession if 
the stems are cut and placed in water. 

These various Irises are among the most satisfactory 
perennials for border gardens. They complete their 
seasonal growth late in summer and should be trans- 
planted early in autumn, so as to become established 
before winter. The Japanese varieties will not flourish 
in soils containing lime, so care should be taken in apply- 
ing bone meal or similar fertilizers to the Iris bed. 

The Composites 

The great sunflower family or Compositae contains 
several attractive perennials suitable for border gardens. 
In these blossoms many tiny flowers or florets are crowded 
together to form a compact head. The individual 
florets around the outside commonly form conspicuous 
ray florets as in the single daisies. 

The plants which we call Wild Asters the English 
people call Michaelmas Daisies. They are so abundant 
along our roadsides and in our fields and woods that we 
do not appreciate them for garden culture as fully as 
our English cousins do. They are, however, probably 
the most desirable plants for flowering late in autumn 
for the border garden. They are hardier than the 
Pompon Chrysanthemums and will thrive with less 
attention. The flowers stand several degrees of frost 
without injury, so they are able to make a brave showing 



98 CROP PRODUCTION 

through October and even into November. Some 
species bloom in August, but the larger and more 
attractive ones come in September and October. The 
New England Aster, of which there are several distinct 
varieties, is one of the best species for garden use. 

The Boltonias or False Chamoniles are tall aster-like 
flowers which are indispensable for late blossoming in 
the border garden. They are taller than most of the 
asters and combine finely with them, both as to form 
and color. Two common kinds are now grown, one 
white, the other lavender-pink. The latter is the larger 
and more attractive. It has also a dwarf variety grow- 
ing but two feet high. All three Boltonias are hard} 
and of easy growth. When established the clumps 
enlarge by means of spreading rootstocks and produce 
great masses of attractive flowers. 

Chrysanthemums and Daisies 

We love the Crocus and the Snowdrop because they 
appear before the snow is gone and show that spring has 
come again. So we love the hardy Chrysanthemums 
because they are the last of the season's flowers and 
remain beautiful even when hidden by the first snow of 
the new winter. They are almost as hardy as the 
wild asters and are the chief dependence of northern 
gardens for outdoor blossoms in November. They are 
often called Pompon Chrysanthemums because of the 
small size of the flowers. The flowers show all the 
colors of the large chrysanthemums, the yellows and 
reds being especially attractive. The plants are hardy 
save in the most northern states and reproduce rapidly 
through the multiplying rootstocks. They are most 



THE HARDY PERENNIALS 



99 



effective when grown in masses in the borders, where 
their late blossoms will be appreciated. 

The charming little English Daisy is not much grown 
in American gardens, but it is an admirable plant for 
spring blossoms as edging for a border garden or a mixed 
flower bed. While the wild 
form in England is a so- 
called single flower, having 
a yellow center and white 
rays, the cultivated Daisies 
are double or nearly so. 
The flowers are white, 
pink, or red and in im- 
proved sorts reach a 
diameter of two inches. 

The plants commonly 
are propagated from seed 
sown in August, the seed- 
lings being wintered in a 
cold frame or under pro- 
tection of loose litter. 
They blossom the following spring. The plants may 
also be propagated by division of the crowns. The best 
results are obtained by starting a new crop .of plants 
from seed each summer. 

The Shasta Daisies are very different from the English 
Daisy. While the latter is only a few inches high the 
former is a tall branching plant with splendid flowers of 
the single composite type. This plant is one of the most 
notable productions of Luther Burbank, the famous 
plant-breeder of California. The newer varieties are 
great improvements over the original form. 




Pompon Chrysanthemums 



ioo CROP PRODUCTION 

GOLDENRODS AND SUNFLOWERS 

We are so used to seeing the Goldenrods in our fields 
and along our highways that too few of us appreciate 
their beauty. Very few perennials can compare with 
them, however, and in other countries they are highly 
prized for garden planting. The color harmonies of the 
asters and goldenrods in American landscapes are most 
beautiful and these plants are well worth growing 
together in border gardens, especially in front of thickets 
of shrubs or trees. The species found in any locality 
serve very well for garden planting. They may readily 
be transplanted late in autumn or early in spring to 
rich, moist soil. With good treatment they improve 
greatly in the garden. 

Various other composite perennials are more or less 
grown in border gardens. The various Sunflowers, 
Pyrethrums, Coneflowers, and Heleniums are the most 
important of these. They are all hardy and of easiest 
culture. 




SPRING-FLOWERING BULBS 

Planting Outdoors {Autumn) 

During October the pupils should plant crocuses, 
tulips, jonquils, and daffodils. Cover to a depth of 
about four times the height of the bulb. 

Late in November the bulb bed should be mulched 
with about six inches of fallen leaves, lawn clippings, 
or strawy manure, as a protection through the winter. 

Late in March this mulch should be removed to enable 
the leaves and flowers to come up properly. 

Planting Indoors (Autumn) 

Practically all of the spring-flowering bulbs may be 
grown to advantage by pupils for winter flowering at 
school and home. 

Plant in October in paper flower pots or ordinary flower 
pots. Set away in the basement cellar or bury out- 
doors under a foot of leaves. After six to ten weeks 
the roots will be well grown and the bulbs may be 
brought to the light and heat of the schoolroom to com- 
plete their growth. 

Grow at least a few large hyacinth bulbs in hyacinth 
glasses as shown in the picture above. 



102 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Bulbs grown by pupils at school should be taken 
home when the blossom appears. 

Precise direction for planting each kind of these bulbs 
both outdoors and in school may be found in The School 
Garden Book. 

A special booklet of drawings, stories, and pictures 
cut from seed catalogues should be made upon this 
topic. 

Ordering Bulbs 

Look in magazines for advertisements of dealers in 
bulbs. Send for some catalogues. 

Let each pupil write as an exercise in language an 
order for a dollar's worth of bulbs, selecting the kinds 
he would prefer. 

Encourage each pupil who so desires to send off such 
an order for his home planting. 




SPRING-FLOWERING BULBS 

The spring-flowering bulbs, like the hyacinths, tulips, 
daffodils, crocuses, and several kinds of narcissi, form 
one of the most important groups of flowering plants. 
They are used in enormous quantities for planting in 
outdoor gardens, as well as for forcing indoors in green- 
houses and window gardens. During winter and spring 
millions of the blossoms forced in greenhouses are sold 
in all our cities. 




Hyacinth Bulbs of Good Size 

Most of these bulbs are grown in Holland and are 
imported each year. So they are commonly called 
Dutch bulbs. Many experiments have been made of 
late in growing these bulbs in America. It has been 
found that they can be produced successfully even in 
such widely separated states as North Carolina and 
Washington, so that it is probable that in the future 
bulb growing will become an important industry in this 
country. 

103 



io4 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Hyacinths 



The common Hyacinth is derived from a species that 
originally grew wild in Syria and Asia Minor. It is 
called Hyacinthus oricntalis or Oriental Hyacinth. Prac- 
tically all the bulbs are now grown in Holland, so it is 

generally called the Dutch 
Hyacinth. The bulbs are 
used largely for both out- 
door planting and indoor 
forcing. For the former 
purpose they should be put 
in the ground early in Oc- 
tober, with the bottom of the 
bulb six inches from the soil 
surface, so that the roots 
will have plenty of time to 
grow before freezing. 

For indoor forcing the 
bulbs should be potted up in 
autumn and set away in a 
cool cellar or basement for 
about six weeks, until the 
roots are well developed and 
the crown of leaves has 
broken apart. Then they 
may be brought to a lighted 
room. The single varieties 
are very attractive when grown in water in hyacinth 
glasses. Small bulbs of these same Dutch Hyacinths are 
sold as Miniature or Dutch Roman Hyacinths. They are 
cheaper than the large ones, but serve very well for 



►» Jr iB/j fl 


w 


iL 


*^J& 


^ 



A Dutch Hyacinth 




From The School Garden Hook 

Picotee-Edge Tulips 
105 



106 CROP PRODUCTION 

school use, especially for planting in small paper flower 
pots or for crowding together in broad flower bowls. 

The Roman Hyacinth is a smaller and more slender 
variety than the Dutch Hyacinth. It blossoms earlier 
and the bulbs are cheaper. Millions of bulbs which are 
grown chiefly in southern France are forced every year 
by the florists. It is one of the best plants for winter 
forcing in schools. It is often called the French Roman 
Hyacinth, and sometimes the Italian Roman Hyacinth. 

Tulips 

The Tulip has been prized in Europe as a decorative 
flower for nearly five hundred years and in Turkey for 
a much longer period. It was introduced into Holland 
in the sixteenth century and was the cause of the most 
famous flower craze that has been known. About 1634 
the people of Europe were affected by what was called 
"Tulipomania," and for a few years speculated in Tulip 
bulbs to such an extent that the government had to 
stop it. There are eighty- three recognized species of 
Tulips and an almost unlimited number of varieties. 

Tulips are largely planted for ornamental beds in set 
designs of colors. They are also very useful for border 
gardens and vast numbers are forced by florists for the 
winter and spring trade in cut flowers. The single varie- 
ties are much more beautiful than the double ones. 

Narcissus Group 

Many attractive species of spring-flowering bulbs are 
found in the genus Narcissus. These include the Daf- 
fodils, Jonquils, Chalice-flowers, Poet's Narcissus, and 
other well-known forms. The single Daffodils are 



SPRING-FLOWERING BULBS 107 

characterized by having large crowns or "trumpets" of 
beautiful tones of yellow. In the Polyanthus group 
there are several blossoms upon one stalk: the Paper 
White is one of the best of these. Another is the Chinese 
Sacred Lily, which is grown in China, the bulbs being 
imported into America in rush baskets, each basket 
holding sixty of the large bulbs. The flowers develop 
readily when the bulbs are placed in water. 

Crocuses 

The Crocuses are among the earliest of the spring- 
flowering bulbs. The kinds commonly planted blossom 
in sheltered corners beside snowbanks, almost as soon 
as the latter have begun to melt. The bulbs are solid 
rather than scaly, so they are called corms. About 
seventy species of Crocus are recognized by botanists, 
though only a few of these are commonly cultivated. 
Several bloom in autumn rather than in spring, but the 
latter are much more satisfactory in cultivation than 
the former. 




SUMMER-FLOWERING BULBS 
Planting Tuberoses {Spring to Autumn) 

A few tuberoses should be planted early in May in 
the border garden at school. They will probably be in 
blossom when school opens in autumn. 

Growing Gladioli (Spring to Autumn) 

Gladiolus bulbs can be bought from the seed-houses 
for a cent each. They are solid corms rather than 
scaly bulbs and each has a thin loose outer covering as 
shown in the picture above. 

Plant some in the school border garden and encourage 
each pupil to plant a few in his home garden. 

Take up the bulbs before freezing weather in autumn 
and store in a cool cellar where they will not freeze. 

Growing Dahlias (Spring to Autumn) 

Dahlia tubers cost little to begin with and multiply 
rapidly from year to year. A collection of good varieties 
in the school garden may be gradually distributed to 
pupils to the great advantage of the home gardens. 

1 08 



SUMMER-FLOWERING BULBS 

For the sake of convenience four sorts of plants not 
closely related may be arranged under this heading: 
they are the Tuberose, the Dahlia, the Gladiolus, and the 
Lily. The word bulbs as here used must be taken in 
a very broad sense, for the roots we plant of Tuberose 
and Dahlia are really tubers and those of the Gladiolus 
are solid corms, the Lilies alone being scaly bulbs. 

The Tuberose 

More than four centuries have passed away since the 
Tuberose was first grown as a garden flower. Its history 
during this long period is most interesting. Originally a 
native of Mexico, it found its way to India, though how or 
when is not known. About the year 1500 it was taken 
to Europe and cultivated by a comparatively few flower 
lovers for many years before it was generally dispersed. 

These early Tuberoses were all single flowers, but about 
1780 a double form was developed in Holland. Then 
for nearly a hundred years these flowers increased in 
popularity, being very fashionable in America just after 
the Civil War. In 1865 a dwarf variety, Pearl, was intro- 
duced. It soon became a leading sort. At present, 
however, Tuberoses are little used here except for gar- 
den culture and funeral flowers. Enormous numbers of 
the bulbs are grown, however, in North Carolina, most 
of them being exported to European and other countries. 

In all but the most northern states Tuberoses are 

109 



no CROP PRODUCTION 

easily brought into blossom in summer and autumn, if 
planted in loamy soil after danger from frost is past. 
In more northern regions it is generally desirable to start 
the bulbs in hot-beds or greenhouses in order to get 
early flowers. 

The Gladiolus 

The modern Gladiolus may certainly claim to be one 
of the most beautiful garden flowers. The graceful 
sword-like leaves and the long spike of blossoms, whose 
petals display such exquisite tints and shades, combine 
to make a distinctive harmony of form and color. A 
great number of sorts are now cultivated. Most of them 
have been derived from a comparatively few original 
species that were chiefly natives of South Africa. 

The bulbs are solid corms, which may be planted in 
fairly rich loamy soil, almost as soon as the ground 
can be worked in spring, and in succession every two 
weeks until the last of June. The flowers open finely 
if the stalks are cut and placed in water as soon as the 
lowest blossom appears. New bulbs are formed above 
the old one each year. These should be dug up in 
autumn and stored in a cool, dry, frost-proof cellar until 
the following spring. 

Dahlias and Lilies 
The Dahlia is really an autumn rather than a summer- 
flowering plant. While many sorts are readily brought 
into blossom in July or August, the chief show is likely 
to be exhibited in September. The plant has been in 
general cultivation only about a century, although in its 
original home in Mexico it has been known as a garden 
flower for a much longer period. Several distinct types 




Spikes of Gladiolus Flowers 
hi 



112 



CROP PRODUCTION 



of flowers are now grown, the most important being the 
large double Cactus Dahlias and the Single Dahlias. The 
Cactus types are perhaps the most beautiful. 

Dahlia roots are tubers with buds at the upper end. 

Single tubers planted 
when danger of frost is 
past will send up stalks 
that will blossom late 
in summer or early in 
autumn. The roots 
must be dug up after 
the leaves are killed 
by the frost, and 
stored for the winter 
in a dry, cool, frost- 
proof cellar. 

The Lilies have al- 
ways been noted for 
their grace and beauty. 
There are many differ- 
ent kinds, natives of 
various lands as well as 
Cactus Dahlias many hybrid sorts de- 

veloped by gardeners. The flower is arranged in sets of 
threes, the three outer sepals and the three inner petals be- 
ing so much alike that they are said to form the perianth. 
There are six stamens and a three-lobed pistil. The scaly 
bulb of the Lilies should be planted early in autumn. 
Most of them thrive best in a light, porous soil in which 
surplus water quickly drains off. The White Bermuda 
Lily or Easter Lily is forced in greenhouses in vast num- 
bers every winter for spring flowering. 




Ill 

FRUIT CROPS 




"3 




ii 4 




POMACEOUS FRUITS: THE APPLE 

Exhibit of Apples 

Have pupils bring in as many varieties of apples as 
they can, selecting especially those kinds whose names 
are known. 

Arrange each sort on a separate sheet of paper and add 
a card giving the name of the variety. It is well to 
have each set so placed as to show all sides, that the 
pupils may see the characteristics of each variety. 

Invite some fruit grower to look over the names to 
see that they are correct. 

After the pupils have had a chance to look at the 
exhibit repeatedly, say for a week, turn the name cards 
down and try each member of the class on a recognition 
test. Repeat the tests until the varieties are easily 
recognized. 

Judging Apples 

Let each pupil copy the score card herewith and judge 
a few of the best sets of apples. Repeat once or twice 
after intervals of a few days. 

"5 



n6 



CROP PRODUCTION 







Typical shape for variety . 


• • 15 


Typical color for variety 


• • 15 






Freedom from insect injury 


. . 20 


Freedom from fungous injury . . 


20 



Varieties of Apples 

Ask each pupil to find out what varieties of apples 
grew best in his orchard. From the list brought in 
make a list of good varieties for your locality, arranging 
them under these headings: 

Summer Autumn Winter 



Insects 



What leaf-eating insects affect apple trees in your 
locality? Keep some of them under observation at the 
school. 

What kinds of bark-lice or scale insects can you find 
upon apple trees? 

If you do not know the name send specimens to your 
State Experiment Station. 

What fruit-eating insects affect apples in your local- 
ity? Bring injured apples to school. 

Mice and Rabbits 

Are these animals injurious to young trees in your 
neighborhood? k 

What means of preventing their injuries have you 
seen tried? 



THE APPLE 



117 



Fungous Diseases 

Find apples affected by scab. 

Find apple leaves affected by scab. 

Inquire whether apple trees sprayed in spring or early 
summer with Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur solution 
are much affected by scab. 




APPLES 

PRODUCTION M /899 

CENSUS/900 
W THOUSANDS OrBUSH£LS 



THE APPLE 

The Apple is the King of- Fruits. In general useful- 
ness, in ease of production, in geographical distribution, 
and in length of season it is without doubt beyond all 
rivalry. It would be difficult to determine the precise 
quantity of apples grown yearly in North America, but 
the product has been estimated at nearly two hundred 
million bushels. In 1907 more than one and a half 
million barrels were exported from the United States, 
chiefly to Great Britain and Germany. 

The development of the Apple has been coincident 
with the development of the human race. Wild Apple 
trees grew in parts of Asia and Europe where man began 
to grow in knowledge of the arts that led to civilization, 
and the use of apples for food and their improvement 
by cultivation extends far back of recorded history. 
This wild Apple of Europe is called by botanists Pyrus 
Malus: our cultivated apples, as distinguished from 
Crab apples, practically all belong to this botanical 
species. Wherever civilized man has gone to make his 
home Apple trees have followed, so that the species has 
been distributed well over the globe. The trees have 
grown under almost all conceivable conditions and 
have varied in infinite ways. Among the billions of 
seedlings that have sprung up a very few have borne 
fruit that appealed to man as of especial value. These 
have been preserved by grafting upon other seedlings, 
so we have today hundreds of improved varieties, giving 

118 



THE APPLE 119 

us a wide choice of fruits — early or late, sweet or sour, 
large or small, of good quality or of poor, red, yellow, 
green, or white. 

Commercial A pple Regions 

While the Apple is grown to a greater or less extent 
over most of the temperate parts of North America there 
are five great regions where the fruit is a staple commer- 
cial product. These regions have been given the follow- 
ing names by F. A. Waugh: 

1. The Lake Ontario Region: parts of New York, 

Michigan, and Ontario. 

2. The Mississippi Valley Region: Illinois, Missouri, 

and parts of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Kansas, 
and Arkansas. 

3. The Allegheny Region: parts of Pennyslvania, 

Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, 
and North Carolina. 

4. The Nova Scotia Region: part of Nova Scotia. 

5. The Pacific Coast Region: parts of Washington, 

Oregon, and California. 
Outside of these commercial Apple regions the fruit 
is grown in great quantities for home use and local sale. 
The trees thrive in a great variety of soils and situations, 
and amply repay the slight care required to keep them 
in bearing condition. While some soils are better than 
others, the trees will grow almost as well on any soil 
that is not waterlogged, a deep, rich, well-drained loam 
being most desirable. Clean, vigorous, two-year-old 
trees with well-formed heads should be chosen for plant- 
ing, and set at distances of forty feet apart each way. 
The soil should be well prepared before planting and 



120 CROP PRODUCTION 

kept in good condition afterwards. There is little use 
in setting apple trees in small holes in grasslands and 
then leaving them to light for life unaided. On a small 
scale especially for the home orchards, young trees can 
be kept thrifty by heavy mulching, being sure to band 
the trees with wire netting to prevent injury to the bark 
by the mice that are likely to seek shelter under the mulch. 
In orchard practice, however, tillage early in the season 
followed by a cover crop later is the best procedure, 
except in hill regions. 

Wild Apples 
In many regions where Apples have been grown for 
generations wild or native Apple trees have sprung up. 
As a rule these bear natural fruit of little value, but 
such trees are readily top-grafted to desirable varieties. 
If the trees are small they can be made over by insert- 
ing a very few scions, but if large more are needed. In 
either case the work is well repaid by the increase of 
the crop in future years. 

Varieties 

About one thousand varieties of Apples are known 
in North America. Less than a score of these form the 
bulk of the commercial product, but many others have 
great value in special localities and for home use. In 
selecting varieties the experience of fruit growers in 
one's own neighborhood is the most valuable guide, 
although it is always interesting to experiment in a small 
way with sorts untried in the locality. 

Success in commercial Apple culture lies in choosing 
the right location and varieties, giving good tillage, 
fertilizing properly, taking care to furnish plenty of 



THE APPLE 



121 



phosphoric acid and potash, but not too much nitrogen, 
pruning correctly, spraying at the proper times and 
with the proper mixtures, harvesting and packing care- 
fully, and selling to best advantage. Each of these 
operations requires knowledge and skill of a high order. 




Unsprayed: Poor Apples at the Right 




Sprayed: Poor Apples at the Right 
Results of a Spraying Test 

Apple Enemies 

Many leaf-eating caterpillars attack apple foliage. 

The Canker-worms are among the most destructive of 

these pests. The eggs of the Fall Canker-worm are 

laid in autumn and remain unhatched through the winter. 



122 



CROP PRODUCTION 



CODLING 
MOTH 



The eggs of the Spring Canker-worm are laid in spring. 
The larvae of both species hatch as the buds are opening 
and attack the young leaves, often doing great damage. 
They are looping caterpillars or measuring worms. 
When fully grown they change to pupae at or near the 
soil surface. The female moths are wingless. Spray- 
ing with arsenate of lead before the blossoms open and 
after the petals fall will destroy these pests. 

In some parts of 
New England the 
Brown-tail Moth and 
the Gipsy Moth are 
exceedingly destruc- 
tive to apple orchards. 
In New York and 
other regions the 
Bud-moth Caterpil- 
lars and Case-bearers 
are injurious. In 
most eastern and mid- 
dle western states the 
Apple Tent-caterpil- 
lar is often destructive. These pests may all be 
controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 




Enemies of the Fruit 

The Codling Moth or Apple Worm is one of the most 
generally injurious insects affecting apple fruits. The 
eggs are laid by a small moth, usually upon the green 
fruit or the leaves. They hatch into whitish worms that 
burrow into the young apple and feed upon the pulp 



THE APPLE 123 

for several weeks. When they are full grown in this 
larval state they leave the apple and each spins a 
cocoon under such shelter of loose bark as it can find. 
Then it changes to a pupa, to change again in about two 
weeks to a moth. There are usually two broods each 
year, the insects passing the winter as larvae within the 
cocoons. 




Four Apples Injured by Curculios: One Uninjured 

The larvae of the Codling Moth may be killed to a 
great extent by spraying the trees with arsenate of lead 
just after the petals fall, when the calyx cups are still 
open. It is desirable to force the poison into the cups 
by using high-pressure pumps that give a forceful spray. 
One or two later sprayings are helpful, but not necessary. 

The Plum Curculio often attacks apples. The female 
beetles cut crescent-shaped marks in the skin of the 
young fruit in order to deposit their eggs. The larvae 
are commonly unable to develop in the apple, but the 
injury done by the beetle causes the fruit to be gnarly 
and one-sided. Fortunately the poison applied to kill 




124 CROP PRODUCTION 

the Codling Moth larvae is also largely effective against 

the adult curculios. 

The Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm is a serious pest 

in many regions. A small fly lays eggs beneath the 
skin of young apples in summer. 
The eggs hatch into footless mag- 
gots that burrow through the pulp. 
The injured fruits finally fall and 
the maggots leave them to enter 
the soil. Here they pupate and 
remain until the following season, 
when they emerge as flies. The 
channels of usual spraying with arsenate of 

APPLE MAGGOT m . 

lead is helpful against the pest, 
as is the picking up of windfalls or pasturing with 
stock that eats them. 

Scale Insects 

Three species of Scale Insects or Bark-lice commonly 
attack apple trees. The San Jose Scale is most destruc- 
tive; the Oyster-shell Scale next and the Scurfy Scale 
next. The Oyster-shell Scale is easily recognized 
through its resemblance to miniature oyster shells. The 
eggs beneath the scales in winter may easily be seen even 
with the unaided eye. The Scurfy Scale occurs as small 
whitish patches scattered over the bark. All these 
scales are killed by the thorough application of the 
lime-sulphur spray to the leafless trees. 

Apple trees, especially when young, often suffer from 
the attacks of Rabbits and Meadow-mice. These pests 
feed upon the bark of the trunk near the ground, fre- 
quently girdling it so completely that the tree dies. 



THE APPLE 



I2 5 



Painting with white lead and pure raw linseed oil, smear- 
ing the bark with the lime-sulpnur wash, or covering it 
with wire netting are efficient 
means of preventing such 
damage. 

Apple Scab 

Apple Scab is the most im- 
portant fungous disease attack- 
ing this crop. It is due to a 
parasitic fungus that develops 
upon both leaves and fruit, caus- 
ing brownish discolorations on 
the former and black, woody 
patches on the latter. It causes 
the loss of millions of dollars 
worth of apples every year. It 
can be prevented by means of 
dilute lime-sulphur spray, which is preferred to Bordeaux 
mixture because it causes no damage to the fruit. 




Oyster-Shell Scale 




7AM 
MAY 12 




10 AM 
MAY 12 




3PM 
MAY 12 




7 AM 
MAY 13 



POMACEOUS FRUITS: THE PEAR 

Varieties 

Teacher and pupils should arrange a little exhibit of 
varieties of pears. Get the real fruit whenever possible, 
helping out with wax models and colored pictures, if 
available. 

Learn what varieties are grown locally and make lists 
under these headings: 

Summer Autumn Winter 



Pear Blight 

Examine pear trees for blighted branches. On neg- 
lected trees these are likely to be found at any season. 
Even in winter such branches may be known by the 
dead leaves still hanging to the twigs. 

Cut off and burn all such diseased branches. 

Fungous Diseases 

Keep watch for pear leaf-blight on leaves and fruits, 
especially late in spring and early in summer. 

Find spots due to scab upon pears. Compare its 
appearance with apple scab. 

126 



THE PEAR 



127 



Inquire whether pear trees sprayed with fungicides are 
injured by these diseases — leaf -blight and pear scab. 

Insect Enemies 

Look for pear leaves which have had the surface 
eaten off, leaving the network of veins to show. In 
summer the little pear slugs that do the damage are 
likely to be found. 

See if you can find pears showing the crescent marks 
of the curculio; or those infested by codling moth larvae. 

Look for bark-lice or scale insects on pear trees. 




THE PEAR 

The Pear appears to have been one of the earliest 
fruits cultivated by man. The wild species, called Pyrus 
communis, is native to Asia and Europe, and its fruit, 
or that of cultivated varieties derived from it, has been 
prized since long before the dawn of recorded history. 
The great majority of the cultivated varieties now grown 
in Europe and America are direct descendants of this 
species. 

Another species of Wild Pear, called Pyrus Sinensis, is 
native to China, whence it has been widely distributed 
over the earth. It is known as the Sand Pear, Chinese 
Pear, and Japanese Pear. Its fruit is of little value as 
compared with the other type, but the tree is of a decided 
ornamental appearance and has been cultivated for 
landscape garden purposes. During the nineteenth cen- 
tury Peter Kieffer, a Philadelphia nurseryman, origi- 
nated a hybrid between this Sand Pear and the European 
Pear which was introduced as the Kieffer and proved 
a very valuable sort for commercial growers. Another 
valuable hybrid of the same sort has been introduced 
since as the Leconte Pear. 

So it happens that the great majority of our cultivated 
varieties of Pears belong to the European species, while 
a very few are hybrids between that species and the 
Sand Pear. The fruit of the former is of better quality, 
but the trees of the hybrids are more vigorous and able 

128 



THE PEAR 129 

to stand more trying climates. The hybrids have made 
commercial pear growing possible in southern regions 
where it had been impracticable with the older sorts. 

Culture and Varieties 

There is no such demand for Pears as there is for 
apples, and the commercial production of the former is 
of far less importance than that of the latter. But in 
certain regions Pears are grown on a large scale with 
profit, and in most places where the fruit trees thrive 
they should form an important feature of all home 
orchards. Pears are valuable for dessert and preserves, 
and by growing several varieties the season can be 
extended from midsummer to midwinter. 

Pear trees thrive and live longest on a moderately 
rich clay soil that induces a steady but not too thrifty 
growth. Two-year-old trees are desirable for planting, 
at distances of twenty feet each way. The young trees 
should be so pruned as to induce a low spreading top 
that will protect the trunk from sun-scald. Wood ashes 
and other fertilizers with little nitrogen are to be pre- 
ferred to those rich in nitrogen, as this element induces 
a rapid soft-wooded growth that is commonly thought 
to render the branches more liable to the attack of Pear 
Blight than branches having a slow, hard-wooded 
growth. 

Most varieties of Pears when grown as standards 
come into bearing slowly, a truth expressed in the old 
couplet 

Plant pears 
For your heirs. 

But when Pears are budded on quince stocks they are 



130 CROP PRODUCTION 

dwarfed and come into bearing earlier. Dwarf pears 
are particularly desirable for planting in the home 
grounds where the space is limited. They have to be 
pruned back every year after they have become well 
established, and the fruit should be thinned radically 
when they first begin to bear. 

Pollination and Picking 

Many a man has planted one or two Fear trees, or 
several of one variety, and has seen them grow and 
blossom but bear no fruit. So he has concluded that 
Pears were not adapted to his locality, when the trouble 
was due to the fact that the flowers of most Pears, like 
those of many plums, are self-sterile to their own variety. 
Consequently it is necessary to plant near together trees 
of different sorts that blossom at the same time so that 
the bees and other insects may cross-pollenize the 
flowers. This will lead to the fertilization of the ovules 
and the setting of an abundant crop of fruit. 

A day's changes in one of the flowers are repre- 
sented in the drawings reproduced on page 126. 

The quality of most fruits is best when they ripen 
upon the tree, but in the case of the Pear the best quality 
is obtained when the green fruit is picked as it reaches 
its full size and is carefully stored in a cool place to 
ripen. In the case of the winter varieties it is worth 
while to wrap each fruit in paper and store it carefully 
in a cool cellar where the temperature varies little. 

Pear Blight 

Pear trees are subject to attack by many pests: bac- 
teria, fungi, insects, mice, and rabbits all find some part 



THE PEAR 131 

of the tree to their liking. The most destructive of these 
enemies are the tiny bacterial germs that cause the 
dreaded Fire Blight which has done so much damage 
to Pear trees that it has long been called Pear Blight, 
though it also affects apples, quinces, and various other 
trees. This commonly shows its presence by the suddjen 
blackening of leaves or blossoms or both, the whole twig 
appearing as if scorched by fire. It affects also the 
fruit and the bark. 

On the bark of the trunk and larger branches Pear 
Blight produces dead cankered spots, around the mar- 
gins of which the germs often develop in the exuding 
sap in enormous numbers. Wasps and flies are at- 
tracted to this sap; they get the germs upon their 
mouth-parts and feet so that when they visit the flowers 
they leave some germs upon the sticky stigma or in the 
liquid nectar in the nectar cup. Either situation is 
favorable to the increase of the blight bacteria; they 
multiply enormously and go down from the blossom to 
the branch, destroying the live tissues as they go. 

When the Blight germs have thus begun to develop 
in some blossoms they are very likely to be carried to 
others by the bees that visit the flowers. So these 
insects may serve to spread infection while engaged in 
their useful work of pollen distribution. Plant lice or 
other sucking insects that develop upon a blighting twig 
or leaf may also carry the germs when they move to new 
feeding places. Even man may unwittingly spread the 
disease with his pruning tools, unless he is careful to 
disinfect them after using them on diseased branches. 

The prompt cutting and burning of all diseased parts, 
with weekly inspections during May, June, and July, and 



T 3 2 



CROP PRODUCTION 



the disinfection of all wounds by a dilute solution of 
formalin or corrosive sublimate are the only known 
remedial measures. The early destruction of suckers 
and water-sprouts on trunk and large branches is desir- 
able to prevent the disease from establishing cankers on 
the main part of the tree. 

Fungous Diseases 

The Pear Leaf-blight is a disease entirely distinct 
from the Pear Blight. It is confined to leaf and fruit and 
does not attack the twigs or bark. It is caused by a 
fungus that infests the young leaves in spring, producing 
small reddish spots on the upper surface. These spots 
grow larger with the development of the fungus, some- 
times running together to form large blotches. Badly 
infested leaves drop off, so the tree may be completely 
defoliated. When the fruit is attacked it commonly 
breaks open in a way suggestive of the effect of Pear 
Scab. The disease may be controlled by spraying with 
fungicides. 

Various other fungous diseases trouble the pear as a 
rule locally, though one, the Pear Scab, is widely distrib- 
uted. In character and life-history this is much like 
the apple scab and may be prevented in a similar way. 
Most diseases of apples are liable to appear upon Pears, 
but fortunately proper spraying checks their injuries 
upon both fruits. 



Much Maqnified 




d 

I w 




Larva 



San Jose Scale 



Infested Pear TwiG 

Maqnified 



i 3 4 CROP PRODUCTION 

Insect Enemies 

The Pear is also subject to attack by many insect 
pests; the Codling Moth, the Plum Curculio, and the San 
Jose Scale have life-histories on pears very similar to 
those upon apples. Various borers and bark-beetles 
also attack pear trees as they do apple trees. The leaves 
are fed upon by the Pear Slug, a small two-brooded 
insect that is readily killed by spraying with arsenates. 

The Pear Psylla is a small insect that is sometimes 
locally injurious. It is a tiny creature, related to the 
aphides. It winters over as an adult, often in the shelter 
of loose bark. In early spring the female Psyllas lay 
their eggs on or near the buds and these eggs hatch into 
little Psyllas that suck the sap from the stalks of the 
developing leaves. These become full grown in early 
summer and lay eggs for a second brood, which in turn 
is followed by other summer broods, throughout the 
season. Spraying as soon as the blossoms fall with 
dilute kerosene emulsion or a solution of whale-oil soap 
is an effective remedy. 

Vertebrate Enemies 
Meadow-mice seem particularly fond of the bark of 
young pear trees. Under the protection of the snow 
they frequently strip off practically all the bark for a 
foot or two above the ground. The best way to prevent 
such damage is to enclose the trunk in wire netting of a 
mesh small enough to prevent the gnawing or else to 
paint the trunk with white lead and raw linseed oil. 
Injury by rabbits will also be prevented by either method, 
if the protection extends far enough up the trunk. 




STONE FRUITS: THE PEACH 

Varieties 

If the peach is grown locally learn what varieties 
succeed best. 

If the peach is not grown locally learn whether a few 
trees have not succeeded in past years. In many places 
peaches could be grown for home use where none are 
now planted. 

Peach Diseases 

Learn whether any of these diseases are destructive 
to peaches locally: 

Peach Yellows Peach Leaf-curl 

Peach Rosette Brown Rot 

Inquire whether orchards sprayed with lime-sulphur 
solution are badly injured by leaf-curl and brown rot. 

Find mummied peaches on the trees. Bring some to 
school and place under an inverted tumbler on a pane 
of glass. Keep moist and see the development of the 
spores in velvety masses. 

Each pupil should remove such mummied peaches on 
trees at home. 

135 



136 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Insect Enemies 

Examine peach trees for signs of borers. Dig out all 
that can be found. 

Examine the bark to see if any scale insects are present. 

After the fruit sets examine the young peaches for the 
crescent marks of the plum curculio. If they are abun- 
dant it may be advisable to jar the trees and catch the 
curculios on sheets spread beneath. 




THE PEACH 

By general consent the Peach ranks as the most lus- 
cious of tree fruits. Like the strawberry — the most 
luscious of small fruits — its season is comparatively 
short and the melting quality of its flesh prevents it 
from being kept long, even in cold storage. The fact 
that areas adapted to Peach growing are restricted on 
account of the tenderness of bud and tree to frost and 
cold also helps to make the fruit a luxury for the summer 
season, though fortunately the fruit is easily preserved 
and forms an important feature of the canned fruit 
industry. 

While five rather distinct types of Peaches are grown 
in North America, most if not all of them are believed 
to have been derived from the Peach of history — a tree 
grown from time immemorial in Persia, and probably 
existing originally as a wild species in China, Asia, or 
other regions. Most of the varieties in the United 
States are of the Persian type grown in Europe for 
centuries, but a few like the pointed Honey Peach and 
the flat Peen-to Peach, which are grown locally in the 
south, have come directly from China in recent years. 
Special interest attaches to the Cobler and some other 
varieties grown commonly in the south: these are de- 
rived from wild peach trees found when the southwestern 
states were settled by the colonists from the eastern 
states. These wild trees are believed to have originated 

137 



1 38 CROP PRODUCTION 

from European peach trees brought to Mexico or other 
regions on the Pacific coast, by the Spaniards at the 
time of their early invasions, several centuries ago. 

Site and Culture 

The Peach is a comparatively short-lived tree, but it 
is easily propagated and begins to bear early. It is 
grown from seed, the little seedlings being budded within 
a year of their sprouting and the trees being planted in 
their permanent situation within a year of the time they 
are budded. Light sandy loams are the best soils for 
growing peaches, but great care must also be taken in 
the selection of the site. Peaches are subject to winter 
killing of trees and fruit buds by too low temperatures 
and the buds and blossoms are subject to destruction by 
frosts. Consequently the site must be one where the 
winter temperature is not too severe and yet where the 
spring warmth will not force the trees into blossom so 
early that the opening buds will be blighted by frost. 

The areas in the United States especially favorable to 
peach growing are limited by these requirements. Near 
great lakes and sounds the winter climate is tempered 
by the water, so that the winter is not so cold nor the 
summer so hot, while spring comes on with moderation. 
So it is natural that the Peach should flourish in such 
regions, and we find great Peach orchards in southern 
Michigan, northern Ohio, western New York, in Dela- 
ware, Connecticut, and along the coast southward. 

In southern regions the winter climate is not severe, 
and in elevations of a thousand feet or more the spring 
comes more slowly then at sea level. So we find more 
Peach orchards flourishing in the higher parts of Georgia, 



THE PEACH 139 

Alabama, and the Carolinas. In many parts of Cali- 
fornia, Peaches are also grown on a large scale, much of 
the fruit being preserved by drying. 

Peach Pests 

The Peach is a tender tree: it grows rapidly and its 
wood, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruit are all delicate in 
structure as compared with most other fruit trees. So 
it is not strange that it is subject to injury from many 
enemies, especially parasitic fungi and insects of several 
kinds. The precise causes of two of the most destructive 
diseases, however, have yet to be determined. Peach 
Yellows has caused the destruction of numberless or- 
chards, and the Peach Rosette in certain southern states 
has been locally injurious. Both are known to be con- 
tagious, but the organisms producing them have not yet 
been isolated. 

Peach trees affected by the Yellows disease send out 
slender yellowish shoots very early in spring, these some- 
times taking on a brush-like appearance because so many 
grow in a cluster. Later in the season the fruit ripens 
prematurely, is of inferior quality, and bears charac- 
teristic red spots on its surface, the red marking extending 
into the flesh. While only a branch or two may be 
affected at first, the disease spreads until it kills the 
whole tree. No remedy is known, the only treatment 
being to remove and burn the tree, root and branch, and 
set a new one in its place. Fortunately the disease does 
not inoculate the soil so that the new tree is in no greater 
danger from Yellows than the trees set in other places 
in the neighborhood. 

Peach Rosette appears to be a sort of acute form of 



140 CROP PRODUCTION 

the Yellows disease. The whole tree may seem to be 
affected suddenly, sending out rosettes of short and 
slender twigs from all its branches, each twig being 
crowded with small yellowish leaves. Such trees soon 
die, and the only thing for the orchardist to do is to cut 
and burn them promptly. 

Fungous Diseases 

The Peach Leaf-curl is a vexatious disease that often 
causes the defoliation of the trees in spring. The young 
leaves become strangely curled and swollen before they 
fall off. The crop for the season is ruined in cases of 
severe attack. The disease is local as a rule and rather 
uncertain in its appearance, but is especially destructive 
during wet springs. Fortunately this Curl can be easily 
prevented by thorough spraying with lime-sulphur wash 
or Bordeaux mixture during the dormant season and 
before the buds swell. The lime-sulphur spray has 
the additional advantage that it destroys the San Jose 
Scale. 

The Brown Rot of Stone Fruits has been the most 
generally destructive disease in Peach orchards. The 
annual loss on this fruit alone caused by this fungus has 
been estimated at three million dollars. In addition to 
the damage done the fruit on the tree and after packing, 
the blossoms are destroyed, especially during wet springs. 
The removal of the mummied peaches upon and beneath 
the trees and spraying with dilute lime-sulphur washes 
are effective remedial measures. 

Many other fungous diseases affect the Peach. The 
Peach Scab is a serious and widespread malady of the 



THE PEACH 



141 



fruit, shown by black specks or blotches upon the skin, 
the injury extending to the adjacent part of the fruit. 
Several other fungi attack the leaves, causing shot-like 
holes or other injurious effects. The bark is attacked 
by others and the roots commonly suffer from the vexa- 
tious Crown Galls that attack so many plants. Special 
care should be taken not to plant any trees showing the 
characteristic galls of this disease. 

Insect Enemies 



Peach trees are almost as subject to insect attack as 
they are to those of parasitic fungi. Root, trunk, bark, 
twig, leaf, and fruit — each is infested 
by one or more insects. The Peach- 
tree Borer is probably the most gen- 
erally destructive of these pests. The 
adult insect is a small clear-winged 
moth that deposits eggs on the trunk 
near the ground. The eggs hatch 
into whitish larvae that burrow be- 
neath the bark, often going toward the 
roots. They cause a gummy exuda- 
tion at the surface of the holes which 
is a sign of their presence. After near- 
ly a year of growth they change to 
pupae, to change again a little later into moths. The 
trees should be carefully examined in early summer 
and in autumn and all borers dug out. 

The San Jose Scale is especially destructive to Peach 
trees. The infested bark becomes covered with a 
grayish crust of scales, the insects multiplying so rapidly 




INJURED BY 
CURCULIO 



142 



CROP PRODUCTION 



as soon to kill the tree. Winter spraying with the lime- 
sulphur wash will destroy the pests, although when trees 
are badly infested it is generally necessary to prune back 
severely before the spray is applied. 

Peach fruits are commonly attacked by the Plum 
Curculio. When the insects are abundant it is necessary 
to spray or to resort to jarring on sheets or Curculio 
catchers to destroy them. Peach foliage is very sensi- 
tive to injury from arsenical poisons, but is not injured 
by spraying with arsenate of lead. The Department 
of Agriculture has demonstrated that the Peach Scab, 
Fruit Rot, and Curculio may all be controlled by three 
sprayings with two pounds arsenate of lead to fifty 
gallons self-boiled lime-sulphur wash, first when shucks 
are falling from young fruits; second two or three 
weeks later; third one month before fruit ripens, with- 
out lead arsenate in the latter case. 





STONE FRUITS: THE PLUMS 

Varieties 

Learn what varieties of plums are grown locally. 
Arrange the variety names under these headings as far 
as possible: 



DOMESTICAS 



Japanese 



American 



Hybrids 



Time of Blossoming 

Learn when all the different varieties of plums grown 
locally blossom. Keep a record of the varieties that 
blossom at the same time, as these are generally cross- 
pollenized by bees and so should be planted near 
together. 

Fungous Diseases 

Find black knots on plums, and wild and cultivated 
cherries. Burn up all that can be seen and make it the 
business of the school to help exterminate this disease in 
the district. 

143 



144 CROP PRODUCTION 

Find on the trees dried plums mummied by brown 
rot. Place one under a tumbler inverted on a pane of 
glass. Add a little water and see the velvety spores 
that are likely to develop. 

Pick off all the mummied plums on the trees and rake 
up those under the trees. Burn. 

Plum Curculio 

Find green plums that show the crescent marks of 
the curculio. 

Cut open fallen plums to find the curculio larvae. 

Place fallen plums in a jar with a few inches of soil in 
the bottom. See if you can find pupae in the soil later. 

Jar plum branches over a sheet and catch some of the 
adult curculios. 




THE PLUMS 

The Plum is justly esteemed one of the most delicious 
of fruits. When fresh it is excellent for eating raw, for 
sauce, and for jelly. It is easily canned and when dried 
the prunes made from certain plums form one of the most 
important of fruit products. So many types of plums 
exist that they can be grown in almost any region and 
the fruit ripens over a very long period. 

The Plum of literature and tradition is the European 
or Domestica type — the Prunus domestica of the great 
botanist Linnaeus. The fruit has been grown for so 
many centuries that it is not known just what wild sort 
it was originally developed from, though it probably was 
a wild tree in Asia. This is still the type most generally 
grown in America, especially in the Eastern and Pacific 
coast regions, where the climate is not so severe as to 
prevent its successful growth. These plums have been 
grown so long, however, and under such varying condi- 
tions that remarkable variations have been developed, 
each type of variation being represented by several 
varieties. 

Classification 

The types of Domestica Plums have been grouped in 
five distinct classes by Bailey, namely: 

i. The Prunes. These are Plums which have so 
much sugar in their composition that they can be dried 

us 



146 CROP PRODUCTION 

successfully. California and other Pacific Coast states 
grow these varieties in enormous quantities, leading the 
world in prune production. About the year 1900 it was 
estimated that 150,000,000 pounds a year were produced 
in this region. Most prunes are made from dark colored 
plums, but improved sorts of light colors are now coming 
into use. ' 

2. The Damson Plums. These are small blue plums 
formerly very popular for sauce and preserves. They 
were grown largely around the homes of the early settlers 
and have become wild in many localities. They are 
pictured on page 143. 

3. The Green Gage Plums. These are rather small 
plums, green or yellow green when ripe. They are of 
excellent quality for preserves, but are less grown now 
than formerly. Reine Claude is typical of this group. 

4. The Yellow or Golden Plums. These are 
distinguished by their large size and yellow color. They 
include some good varieties, such as Coe's Golden Drop. 

5. The Purple Plums. These are the well-known 
plums, like the Lombard, having red, blue, or purple 
skins, and of medium or large size. A large proportion 
of the commonly grown varieties belong to this group. 

Culture and Enemies 

The Domestica Plums are most successful on a com- 
paratively heavy soil, although they may be grown to 
advantage under a great variety of conditions. When 
grafted upon the peach they succeed in sandy soils. In 
the great regions adapted to their growth climatically 
they are justly favorites in home gardens as well as in 



THE PLUMS 147 

commercial plantations. The trees should be set from 
fifteen to twenty feet apart according to the variety. 
Two-year-old trees are the best to plant. The young 
trees should be severely pruned back before setting. 
Careful culture or heavy mulching should be given the 
young plantation, together with plenty of plant food, 
especially that rich in potash. 

Many varieties of plums will not set fruit unless the 
blossoms are cross-pollinated by another variety. This 
is a common reason for failure with the crop. It is easily 
avoided by planting two or preferably more varieties 
near one another, so that the bees and other insects may 
carry the pollen from tree to tree. These must be 
sorts, however, that blossom at the same time. In 
general it is worth while to grow at least a few 
trees of several sorts in order to be sure of abundant 
cross-pollination. 

The Domestica Plums are subject to many attacks by 
insects and fungous diseases. Unless constant watch is 
kept for Black Knot, San Jose Scale, Fruit Rot, and 
Curculios the trees are likely soon to become worthless. 
But these enemies can be controlled and their existence 
makes the plums even more valuable to the intelligent 
fruit grower. 

Japanese Plums 

In 1870 a fruit grower in California imported some 
plum trees from Japan. A few years later the trees 
began bearing good crops of attractive fruit, so different 
from the other plums in cultivation that it seemed worth 
while to propagate the variety. So about 1883 a firm 
of California nurserymen began selling the trees, naming 



148 



CROP PRODUCTION 



the variety the Kelsey, after the man who owned the 
original trees. Seedlings from these original fruits were 
grown and other importations from Japan were made, 
so that a few years later several varieties of Japanese 
Plum trees were upon the market. 

These Japanese Plums differ decidedly from the 
Domestica types. Their technical name is Primus 
triflora. In manner of growth and appearance of foliage 
they are suggestive of peach trees. They grow very 
rapidly and begin bearing early. The flowers appear 
so early in spring that they are often in danger from 
late frosts. The blossom buds are clustered beside the 
leaf buds and the fruits are borne in such thick clusters 
along the branches that thinning is generally necessary 
to get plums of large size. 

Both color and quality of the fruits vary greatly, 
some sorts being red, others yellow. Some are good for 
dessert or canning and others are poor in quality. The 
trees vary greatly in hardiness also, some kinds enduring 

the severest winters of the 
extreme northern states, 
where others have their 
fruit buds easily killed by 
freezing. So the selection 
of varieties with respect to 
their adaptation to special 
purposes and to local con- 
ditions is very important 
with these fruits. 
Burbank Plums The Japanese Plums 

have been especially important in the origination 
of new varieties by crossing with other sorts. Very 




THE PLUMS 



149 



remarkable results have been obtained by Luther 
Burbank in California, who has produced many new 
plums through hybridizing the Japanese with other 
kinds. Nearly a hundred Hybrid Plums, largely of 
Japanese origin, are now known and new ones are fre- 
quently being introduced. Some of the most promising 
varieties of plums are found in the list of hybrids. 
Among these the varieties called Apple, Climax, Golden, 
Maynard and Occident or Sultan deserve special 
mention. 

American Plums 

The third important group of plums are the various 
American types. These are seedlings or hybrids of the 
several species of wild 
plums, native to vari- 
ous parts of North 
America. They are 
specially valuable be- 
cause of their hardi- 
ness, which adapts 
them to climatic condi- 
tions under which the 
European and Japan- 
ese varieties cannot be 
grown. Botanically 
these American plums 




Red June Plums 



are much confused because many of them are natural 
hybrids. For convenience they are divided into certain 
groups, of which the most important are the Wild Plum 
of the Mississippi valley region, known technically as 
Prunus Americana, and its northern variety the Canada 



i5° 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Plum (variety nigra), the Wildgoose Group, the Miner 
Group, and the Wayland and Chickasaw groups. Each 
of these groups has given rise to varieties now or for- 
merly in cultivation, and in general especially adapted 
to certain regions. 

A great many of the Japanese, the Hybrid, and the 
American Plums are self-sterile, each variety requiring 
pollination by some other variety that blossoms at the 
same time. Consequently it is very important in plant- 
ing the trees to learn if possible by the experience of 
others in the same locality what sorts help one another 
in this way. The state experiment station or the na- 
tional Department of Agriculture can generally suggest 
such varieties. 

While good plums of any sort are especially desirable, 
for the home garden, they also find a ready market in the 
larger cities. To get the best prices care is needed in 
culture to insure large size and good quality. One of 
the best receptacles for marketing plums is the ten 
pound grape basket, generally used in marketing 
grapes. 

Prunes 
Damsons 
Domestica or European \ Green Gages 
Yellow Plums 
Purple Plums 
J Pure Japanese 
( Japanese Hybrids 



Types 

of 
Plums 



Japanese 



American 



Americana Group 
Canada Group 
Wildgoose Group 
Miner Group 

Wayland Group 
Chickasaw Group 



THE PLUMS 151 

Plum Pests 

Few fruit crops are so beset by enemies as are the 
plums. Root, trunk, branch, leaf, flower, and fruit are 
each attacked by insects or fungi or both, too often with 
disastrous result. Yet the very fact of these attacks 
makes the plums worth growing, for without these 
various enemies the fruit would be so abundant as to 
have little commercial value. 

The Black Knot has probably destroyed more plum 
trees in the past than all other agencies combined. This 
is a fungous disease which occurs upon wild and culti- 
vated cherries and plums in the form of black, wart-like 
excrescences upon the bark of twigs and branches. In 
many regions its ravages are prevented by careful 
watchfulness. 




Black Knot, like other fungous diseases, reproduces 
by means of spores. These appear in summer as a 
velvety olive green coating upon the bark of affected 
branches. They are scattered by wind and rain and 
when they lodge upon the tender bark of other branches 
they start the disease anew. Consequently one of the 
first remedial measures is to cut and burn all Black 
Knots wherever found to prevent the development of 
these spores. It is also necessary to keep a sharp lookout 
all through the summer for the swollen places on twigs 
and larger branches that indicate new attacks of the 



152 CROP PRODUCTION 

fungus and to cut and burn these promptly. Spraying 
with fungicides will also prove helpful. 

Other Fungous Diseases 

The Brown Rot of stone fruits is another serious 
menace to plum culture. It is the disease that so often 
causes the rotting of the fruit upon the tree before picking 
or in the baskets after picking. It is caused by a fungus 
which produces myriads of spores from the affected 
fruits, these spores being carried by the wind and starting 
new centers of disease when they light upon other plums. 

Many of the injured fruits hang as shriveled mummies 
upon the tree through the winter and spring while others 
remain upon the ground beneath the tree. These de- 
velop new crops of spores in spring and summer, these 
spores often causing the disease to appear upon the 
blossoms in spring and the new crop of fruit in summer. 
Consequently the destruction of all these mummied 
plums is desirable if we hope to check the disease. Then 
by spraying with the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash 
serious injury may be prevented. 

Young plums are sometimes affected by a curious 
disease which causes them to become strangely swollen 
with hollow spaces where the pits should be. The 
disease is called Plum Pockets: it is due to a parasitic 
fungus closely related to the one that causes Peach Leaf- 
curl. The swollen plums often become covered with 
a powder made up of the spores of the fungus. Then 
the diseased plums fall off, but threads of the fungus 
remain in the twigs and grow along with the twigs so 
that succeeding crops on such branches are very likely 
to be diseased. Consequently it is desirable to cut off 



THE PLUMS 



153 



all branches which bear the swollen plums, and to cut 
back far enough to get rid of the fungus threads in the 
tissues of the twig. 

The foliage of both plum and cherry trees is often 
seriously injured by Leaf-spot, a fungous disease which 
first appears in the form of small discolored spots, 
generally purplish in color. 
These spots soon turn 
brown, and when the spots 
are numerous the leaves 
become yellow and drop 
off. When not so numer- 
ous as to affect the whole 
leaf the little brown cir- 
cles sometimes drop out, 
leaving holes looking as if 
small shot had been fired 
through the leaf. On this 
account the fungus is some- 
times called the shot-hole fungus. The disease may be 
prevented by spraying three or four times with the self- 
boiled lime-sulphur wash. 

Insect Pests 

Many insects attack plum trees occasionally, but one 
pest must always be taken into consideration — the 
Plum Curculio. This is a small beetle that occurs 
practically everywhere that plums are grown and appears 
practically every season to prey upon the fruit. Occa- 
sionally a few years will pass when it is so scarce that 
it does little injury and on large plantations it often 
happens that there are so many more plums than Cur- 




Plum Pockets 



154 



CROP PRODUCTION 




Food Punclure 
Larva 

-Egq Puncrure 

PLUM 
CURCULIO 




culios that the latter are a positive benefit in thinning 
the fruit. But in the home orchard the Curculio needs 
looking after if an adequate crop is to be gathered. 

The adult Plum Curculios appear on the trees in early- 
spring about the time that the buds open. They feed 
upon the young leaves awhile and remain until the 
blossoms have come and gone and the fruit has set. 

Then they nibble 
little cavities in the 
green plums for food 
and make character- 
istic crescent-shaped 
marks in the skin in 
depositing their eggs 
in the green flesh of 
the young plums. 
These eggs soon hatch 
into little grubs that feed upon the pulp and render 
the fruit unfit to ripen. So it falls to the ground, the 
grub crawls out and finds shelter in the soil. Here it 
changes to a pupa and a few weeks later changes to an 
adult beetle that lives until the following spring. This 
insect attacks cherries, peaches, and apples as well as 
plums. 

In orchards the Plum Curculio can be killed off largely 
by spraying with arsenates. In smaller plantings it is 
often necessary to jar the trees early in the morning, 
catching the beetles that fall by first placing a sheet on 
the ground beneath the trees. Curculio catchers are 
often made by spreading sheeting over a frame with one 
or more wheels attached. The Curculios thus caught 
are of course destroyed. 




STONE FRUITS: THE CHERRIES 

Varieties 

Let pupils tell where there are sweet and sour cherry 
trees growing in the district. 

How do the two trees differ in manner of growth? 

See how much can be learned about the names of the 
varieties of each type that are grown successfully. Make 
a temporary blackboard list under these headings: 



Sweet or Mazzard 



Sour or Morello 



Enemies 

Make a map of the district and mark on it every 
locality where pupils find that black knot is growing 
on wild cherries, cultivated cherries, or plums. 

Get each pupil to agree to destroy the black knot on 
his own farm or home grounds. 

Request the highway commissioners to destroy it 
along the highways. 

155 



156 



CROP PRODUCTION 



See if the school cannot make its influence felt in this 
one campaign against black knot. 

Let teacher and pupil feel that every black knot to 
be seen in the district is a reflection on the efficiency of 
the school. 

Whenever the knot is eradicated from a locality 
mark off the place in red. 

Be sure that all knots are burned. 



Stamen 




CHERRY 
BLOSSOM 



THE CHERRIES 

Commercially the Cherry is one of the least important 
of the Stone Fruits, the product being of decidedly less 
value than peaches or plums. There are, nevertheless, 
enormous quantities of Cherries grown for home use and 
in a few regions the fruit is grown for canning factories 
or for market. 

The many varieties of cultivated Cherries are readily 
classified into two great groups — the Sweet Cherries 
and the Sour Cherries. The Sweet or Mazzard Cherries 
are all derived from a tree native to Europe and Asia 
called by botanists Prunus avium. The Sour or Morello 
Cherries are all derived from another tree, also native to 
Asia and perhaps to Europe, called by botanists Prunus 
cerasus. Both of these trees have been in cultivation 
for a long period and have run wild in many parts of the 
United States. 

Sweet Cherries 

The Sweet or Mazzard Cherry tree grows erect with a 
main central stem beside which the branches run in a 
nearly vertical direction, giving the trees a pyramidal 
appearance which is especially marked when they are 
young. The wild seedlings are abundant in the Atlantic 
states and are commonly called Mazzard Cherries. 
These Mazzard seedlings are largely used as a stock on 
which to graft the various sorts of both sweet and sour 

157 



I5 8 CROP PRODUCTION 

cherries. The fruit of these is inferior to the cultivated 
sorts, of which there are three principal types, namely: 
the Hearts, the Bigarreaus, and the Dukes. These three 
types are characterized thus: 
Hearts: fruit sweet, soft, heart-shaped, as in Black 

Tartarian. 
Bigarreaus: fruit sweet, firm, heart-shaped, as in 

Napoleon. 
Dukes: fruit rather sour, as in May Duke. 

Sour Cherries 

The Sour or Morello Cherry tree grows in a low spread- 
ing manner that at once distinguishes it from the Mazzard 
type of tree. The trunk breaks up into several branches 
without a main central stem and these branches grow 
outward horizontally rather than upward vertically. 
Wild seedlings are abundant in many regions where 
Cherries have been grown for a long period, and these 
seedlings often occur in thickets because the trees send 
up suckers freely from the roots. When well treated 
such seedlings often yield excellent fruit. There are 
two types of Sour Cherries, namely: 

Amarelles: fruit round, with skin light red, juice 
colorless, as in Early Richmond. 

Morellos: fruit round, with skin and juice dark red, as 
in English Morello. 

Cherry trees thrive in a light, loamy, well-drained, and 
fairly rich soil in regions where the air is not too dry. 
Consequently it is a crop for northern and coast regions 
rather than the great plains areas. The Sour Cherries 
are hardier and adapted to a wider range of soil and 
climate than the Sweet. One or two-year-old trees are 



THE CHERRIES 159 

planted and all varieties should be so pruned as to make 
low spreading heads, an easy process with the Sour type 
but more difficult with the Sweet. The possibilities of 
profit from commercial planting depend very largely 
upon the accessibility of a good market. 

Enemies 

Cherry trees are particularly liable to destruction by 
Black Knot, caused by the same parasitic fungus that 
attacks the plum. This is the main reason for the 
disappearance of the cherry trees on thousands of home 
grounds. A constant watch for the first signs of the 
disease — shown by the swelling of the bark — -should be 
kept and such injured parts immediately be cut off and 
burned. All wild cherry or wild plum trees that show 
the Knots in the neighborhood should also be burned 
and united action be taken by the whole community to 
suppress the disease. 

The cherry is subject to much the same injury by 
Leaf-spot and Brown Rot that the plum is. The Leaf- 
spot is often injurious to young trees and in moist cli- 
mates is frequently supplemented by the Cherry Powdery 
Mildew, which causes the leaves to curl up and drop off. 
The Brown Rot is usually less destructive than on plums 
because the cherry fruits do not touch one another as the 
plums often do. Spraying with the lime-sulphur wash 
is helpful in preventing all of these diseases. 

The Plum Curculio also attacks cherries and some- 
times causes the loss of much of the crop. In large 
plantations the injury may be prevented to a great 
extent by spraying with arsenate of lead, but where the 
attack is severe upon a few trees the jarring method 



i6o 



CROP PRODUCTION 



should be employed. The leaves of cherries are often 
injured by the Cherry Slug, pictured below, which is 
easily killed by dusting air-slaked lime or other pow- 
dery materials over the tree, or by spraying with 
hellebore or arsenate of lead. The young leaves are 
also attacked by the Cherry Aphis, a pest to be des- 
troyed by early spraying with dilute kerosene emul- 
sion or some form of tobacco decoction. 







jfl 

* 29 




1 


.. 


■ 





jr ^J/LMg^J^^f^L 


fe|L ^W 















SMALL FRUITS: THE GRAPE 

Varieties 

Learn what varieties of grapes are grown in your 
district. Make a list of the good qualities of each as 
indicated by these headings : 

Earliness of ripening 

Hardiness in living over winter 

Size of berries 

Size of clusters 

Freedom from disease 

Fungous Diseases (Summer and Autumn) 

Let pupils look over grapes on their home grounds. 
If some of the berries are shriveling and turning black 
they are probably affected with black rot. 

Look also for a whitish mildew on the leaves and 
young grapes, with a more or less powdery effect. This 
is the powdery mildew. 

Learn whether vineyards sprayed with Bordeaux 
mixture suffer much from these diseases. 

161 



l62 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Just after the fruit sets tie paper bags over some of 
the clusters, and leave on till the grapes are ripe. 

Insect Enemies 

Look for grape leaf hoppers on the leaves. Find the 
different stages. See how they get their food. 

Look also for grape-vine flea-beetles. See how they 
differ from the leaf hoppers. 

Find clusters of green grapes attacked by the larvae 
of the grape-berry moth. See the whitish worm that 
does the damage. 




THE GRAPE 

The Grape is one of the most generally grown of the 
small fruits. One or more vines are to be found in the 
home grounds of most Americans in village and country. 
In certain sections where climate and soil are especially 
favorable, extensive vineyards produce great quantities 
of the fruit for market. There are so many varieties 
that the Grape is adapted to a wide range of climate and 
can be grown with profit from Maine to Texas. 

Grape vines may be grown successfully in a great 
variety of soils, but they thrive best in a deep, porous, 
well-drained, sandy loam. If the soil is too rich in 
nitrogen there is a growth of vine at the expense of fruit. 
So care should be taken to fertilize only moderately, 
especially with regard to nitrogen. If the soil is acid, 
lime should be added and in warm climates especial care 
should be taken to see that the roots can go deep enough 
into the subsoil to escape the parching heat of summer. 

Early spring is the best time for planting grapes. One- 
year-old vines are to be preferred to older ones as they 
make a better start with less checking of their growth. 
They should be set six to ten feet apart in well-prepared 
holes. In case of a few plants about the home it is 
worth while to bury a few pounds of old bones in the 
bottom of each hole. These will furnish materials for 
growth to the roots in later years. Before or just after 
planting, the vines should be severely pruned, cutting 

163 



164 



CROP PRODUCTION 



back to two or three buds. Each vine should be set 
about two inches deeper than it formerly grew. 

Pruning 

Volumes have been written concerning the pruning of 
grape vines. There are many different systems of such 
pruning. They all depend primarily upon the fact that 




Renewal System of Grape Pruning 

Branches AAA will bear next year 

the fruit is borne on the new wood of the same season's 
growth. Consequently the canes of the previous seasons' 
growth are cut back to two or three buds, so that the new 
shoots sent out may have abundant nourishment for 
the development of a few bunches of fruit. One of the 
important aims in pruning is so to reduce the number of 
clusters that the vine will be able to mature them all, 
without a strain upon its vitality. Another object in 
pruning is to keep the fruit within easy reach, without 
the growth of long branches that carry the bearing 
shoots far away from the roots. Pruning is generally 
done late in winter shortly before spring growth starts. 



THE GRAPE 



165 



The details of pruning depend to a considerable extent 
upon the method of training adopted. Some vinc- 
yardists train to trellises with three wires one above 
another; this is called the upright system. Others train 
to trellises with three wires arranged horizontally beside 
one another; this is called the canopy system. The 
latter is especially popular in southern regions. 

Propagation 

Grape vines are easily propagated by layering. In 
early spring make a shallow furrow three inches deep 
near a vine in the direction of the rows. Lay a cane of 
last year's growth along the bottom of this furrow, 




Grape Cuttings 

leaving the cane attached to the plant. Peg the cane 
down with small sticks. After the new shoots that will 
come from the buds on this cane have grown to the 
length of six inches, fill in the furrow with soil. Roots 
will be sent out from the base of each shoot, and a good 
plant will be thus formed by autumn. This method is 
especially adapted to home gardens. 

The grape is also easily propagated by cuttings. These 
should be eight to ten inches long, and cut late in au- 
tumn from well- ripened wood grown that season. They 
should be tied together in small bundles and buried in 
well-drained soil or stored in sand or sawdust, or in a 



166 CROP PRODUCTION 

cool cellar. Early in spring they should be planted out- 
doors in rich, moist soil, being buried vertically about six 
inches apart in the row. The soil should be thoroughly 
tramped down around them so that the bottom of the 
cutting will be in direct contact with it. A good pro- 
portion of these cuttings of varieties that root easily, 
like Concord and Niagara, make a growth of two or 
three feet of new shoots during the season. The next 
spring the young vines are ready for transplanting. 

Enemies 

Grapes are attacked' by many insects and parasitic 
fungi. Few of the former are so numerous as to be 
generally destructive every year, although at times some 
of them become pests over wide areas. 

Of the fungi the Black Rot is perhaps the most seri- 
ous, especially in southern regions. It commonly first 
appears on the leaves early in summer as small reddish 
brown spots. A little later similar spots show upon the 
green grapes. The latter soon rot, shrivel, and turn 
black, assuming a characteristic appearance. Spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture prevents this and other grape 
diseases, although for a few home vines, tying paper 
bags about the young clusters and leaving them on 
until the fruit ripens is a simpler preventive. 




SMALL FRUITS: CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 

Characteristics 

In what ways can you tell gooseberry bushes from 
currant bushes? In what ways are gooseberry fruits 
used for food? 

Can you learn the names of any varieties of currants 
and gooseberries grown in your district? 

Growing Cuttings 

Let each pupil make cuttings of new wood about eight 
inches long in autumn. Tie in bunches and bury in 
sandy soil until spring. 

In spring dig up. See the callus on the cut ends. 
Plant in rows, six inches apart in the row, leaving two 
inches of cutting above the ground. 

Keep hoed and free from weeds throughout the 
season. The following spring distribute to the pupils 
to set out at home. 

Insect Pests (Spring) 

Watch the lower leaves of currants and gooseberry 

bushes for eggs and small larvae of currant worms 

soon after the leaves appear. As soon as small round 

holes are seen, spray with hellebore or arsenate of lead. 

167 



1 68 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Place a few currant worms in a tumbler and feed with 
leaves to rear the larvae and see the changes they 
undergo. 

Watch for weak canes in spring. Cut open to see if 
they are hollowed out by the cane-borer. Remove and 
burn affected canes. 

Fungous Diseases 

Find leaves affected by leaf -spot. See how the green 
part is injured by the spread of the fungus. 

See whether spotted leaves drop off before the healthy 
ones. 




THE GROSELLE FRUITS 

Currants and Gooseberries are the domesticated types 
of a great genus of wild plants called Ribes. More 
than a score of species belong to this genus, which is of 
almost world-wide distribution. Only a few of these 
species are of economic importance, however, the most 
notable being those from which our garden Currants and 
Gooseberries have been derived. The word Groselle, 
adapted from an old French name, has been adopted to 
include the fruit-producing forms of Ribes, so we may 
use it when we wish to include both currants and goose- 
berries. 

Currants 

The garden Currants, including both the red and the 
white fruited varieties, have been derived from a wild 
species found in northern regions practically around the 
globe. It is called Ribes rubrum and is native to Europe, 
Asia, and North America. The botany books say it is 
found in "cold woods" and that in America it ranges 
south to "northern New England, New Jersey, Indiana, 
and Minnesota." In view of this statement of the home 
of the wild plant it is not surprising to find that as a 
successful garden crop the Currant is limited to northern 
regions, though sometimes it flourishes farther south in 
mountainous localities. 

A deep, moist, rich, loamy soil and a cool climate 
with only moderate sunshine furnish the conditions 

169 



170 CROP PRODUCTION 

under which the garden Currant thrives, growing 
vigorously through a long season, retaining its leaves 
till the end of summer, and producing an abundant crop 
of good fruit. Without these favoring conditions, the 
growth is weak, the leaves are shed long before the 
proper time, and the crop is small in quantity and poor 
in quality. 

In addition to the common Red Currants there are 
several white varieties derived from the same source. 
The Black Currants in cultivation are practically all 
varieties derived from the wild European Black Currant 
— Ribes nigrum. These are much more popular in 
Europe than in America, for they are seldom grown here. 

Propagation and Culture 

Few fruit crops are easier to propagate than Currants. 
This is done by hard-wood cuttings of the newly grown 
canes. Vigorous canes that have just finished their sea- 
son's growth are cut into lengths of six or eight inches, 
tied in bundles of a dozen or more, and buried vertically 
in sandy soil to an inch above their tops. They are left 
thus until spring, being mulched with leaves or litter 
through the winter. By spring the lower end will have 
healed over by means of a callus and the cuttings may 
be set six or eight inches apart in rows, being buried so 
that only an inch or so of the upper end is exposed. 
These will send out roots and shoots and by another 
spring be ready to set out as one-year plants. 

In establishing the permanent plantation, two-year- 
old plants are generally set four feet apart, in rows six 
feet apart. The plants should be inserted a little deeper 
than they were before, that a good root growth may be 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 171 

established. In the most northern states they may be 
set in full exposure to the sun, but farther south it is 
desirable to choose a partially shaded situation. Good 
tillage or heavy mulching should be given and liberal 
applications of wood ashes or other fertilizer rich in 
potash should be made. The bushes will begin bearing 
the second season after planting. After that the old 
wood should be removed occasionally, though care 
should be taken not to thin out too severely. 

Diseases and Enemies 

The Currant is subject to certain leaf-spot diseases, 
which often cause the early dropping of the foliage and 
a loss of fruitfulness the following season. These are 
due to the growth of parasitic fungi, which produce 
small brownish spots that gradually enlarge until they 
cover most of the leaf, or several may run together to 
form large blotches. The leaves soon drop off and the 
storage of food materials by the bush ceases for the 
season. Sometimes an existing crop upon the vines is 
unable to ripen, but more often the loss is shown in the 
smallness of the crop the following season. The choos- 
ing of cuttings from the least affected bushes, the burn- 
ing of fallen leaves, and spraying with fungicides are the 
best measures of prevention. 

The Currant Worm is one of the most destructive 
garden insects. It is found in most places where cur- 
rants are grown, and unless poisoned commonly defoli- 
ates the bushes. Wintering over in cocoons beneath 
the bushes, the parent flies appear in the garden early 
in spring and lay their eggs upon the young leaves. The 
eggs soon hatch into the worms or larvae that devour 



172 



CROP PRODUCTION 



the leaves greedily for several weeks. Then they form 
cocoons beneath the bushes and change to pupae, soon 
changing again to the second brood of flies. These 




The Currant Worm 

Eggs on leaf; larvae eating leaf; adult fly 

flies lay eggs for the second brood of larvae, which are 
often overwhelmingly abundant. Spraying or dusting 
the bushes with hellebore when the leaves are two-thirds 
grown is the remedy generally employed. 

Gooseberries 

From time immemorial a species of Gooseberry (now 
called by botanists Ribes grossularia) has been growing 
wild in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The ripe fruit doubt- 
less has been eaten by men for thousands of years, but 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 173 

it seems that the plants were not cultivated in gardens 
until about four hundred years ago. Between the years 
1500 and 1600 the plants were frequently cultivated in 
Europe, especially in Holland and England, and various 
distinct varieties were developed. At a later period 
the cultivation of the Gooseberry became a hobby with 
the weavers of Lancashire, England. They had Goose- 
berry exhibits every year and did a great deal to im- 
prove the size and quality of the fruit. Thanks largely 
to their interest there are now many varieties of these 
English Gooseberries grown in England and to a less 
extent in America. 

From time immemorial, also, a species of Gooseberry 
(called by botanists Ribes oxyacanthoides) has been grow- 
ing wild in North America, especially in the eastern 
United States. The ripe fruit had doubtless been 
utilized by the Indians centuries before the Pilgrims 
landed at Plymouth, and probably was eaten by both 
Indians and Whites thereafter. But so far as we know, 
no one took the trouble to grow these Gooseberry plants 
in gardens until about 1833, when a seedling was raised 
from a wild Gooseberry fruit at Lynn, Massachusetts, 
by Abel Houghton. It proved so valuable that it was 
introduced as a new variety, and named the Houghton, 
after the originator. It is still grown, though better 
sorts have since been obtained as seedlings from it. It 
is probable that the original Houghton plant was a 
hybrid, the pollen that fertilized the seed coming from 
one of the English sorts growing near a wild plant set 
in Abel Houghton's garden. Many sorts since intro- 
duced are also such hybrids. 

Thus it happens that we have in America today two 



i74 



CROP PRODUCTION 



types of Gooseberries — the European and the Ameri- 
can, with many varieties of each. The European berries 
are larger, but have thicker skins and are the poorer in 
the quality of the fruit. They have the great defect, 
however, that they are very subject to attack by Goose- 
berry Mildew, a fungous disease that practically pre- 
vents their being grown to any great extent without 
persistent spraying. Industry and Triumph are the 
most important of the European sorts now planted in 
America. In some favored localities they are not much 
injured by Mildew. 

Except in the matter of size the varieties of American 
origin are better than the European, being hardier and 
more vigorous and yielding fruit with thinner skins 
and of better quality. Many of the American sorts are 
chance seedlings from wild plants, while others are 
hybrids in which the American characters predominate. 
The Downing is the most popular sort. It is a seedling 
of the Houghton and was first grown by Charles Downing 
in New York state. 

Propagation and Culture 

Gooseberries are grown from cuttings, although uni- 
form success is not so easy as with currant cuttings. 
The method is the same in both cases, but the Goose- 
berry stems do not root so readily. In nursery practice 
new plants are generally grown by a special system of 
layering. Well-established bushes several years old are 
severely cut back in the fall or winter so that a vigorous 
crop of young shoots will be sent out in spring. Then 
soil is mounded up around the bush and filled in at the 
center in such a way that the bases of the young shoots 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 175 

are buried in a few inches of soil. The shoots send out 
roots into this soil and when well grown may be cut off 
below the roots, thus furnishing new plants. American 
varieties of Gooseberries are also propagated occasionally 
by means of root-cuttings. 

Like the currant the Gooseberry is essentially a 
northern fruit. It thrives in a cool climate in a rich, 
moist soil. It is a home garden fruit more than a 
market fruit, although in the larger cities there is a fair 
demand for the berries, which are generally picked 
green. In gardens the bushes can often be kept in good 
thrift by the use of a thick mulch of grass or coarse litter 
which will shade the soil, retain moisture, and prevent 
the growth of weeds. 

Enemies 

Gooseberries are subject to attack by much the same 
insect and fungous enemies as the currant, with the 
Powdery Mildew as an added source of trouble. As 
already indicated this is seldom noticed upon the varie- 
ties of American origin, but is very destructive to the 
European sorts. This fungus usually appears in spring 
upon the partially grown leaves and buds, first showing 
as a sparse, cobweb-like covering. Later it assumes a 
more powdery appearance because of the development 
of millions of tiny white spores. The young berries are 
also attacked, generally being dwarfed and one-sided 
as they develop. Spraying with a solution of potassium 
sulphid, one ounce to two gallons, about once in ten days 
from the time the buds begin to open until the fruit is 
gathered will prevent the disease. But it is easier to 
grow the American sorts which are not subject to it. 




small fruits: the raspberries 
Black Raspberries 

See how blackcap raspberries differ from red rasp- 
berries. 

Learn what varieties are grown in your district. 

Mount in your booklet some catalogue pictures of 
good varieties. 

Did you ever see any of the yellow-fruited or the pink- 
fruited sorts? 

How are new plants obtained? 

See if you can find canes attacked by the disease 
called anthracnose. 

Red Raspberries 

See how the Red Raspberries differ from the Blackcaps. 
Learn what varieties are grown in your district. 
How are new plants obtained? 



176 



THE RASPBERRIES 
Blackcap Raspberries 

The wild Black Raspberry is one of the most abundant 
and widely distributed of the fruits native to North 
America. The type species (Rubus occidentalis) is found 
throughout the region north of Georgia and Missouri 
to Oregon and British Columbia, while a special variety 
occurs in the Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific 
Coast. 

So far as the records show, the fruit was first brought 
into cultivation in 1832, when Nicholas Longworth, of 
Cincinnati, Ohio, found a very promising wild plant 
which he transferred to his garden and introduced 
to horticulturists under the name Ohio Everbearing. 
Nearly twenty years later another promising plant was 
found wild in New York state and introduced about 1850 
as the Doolittle. Since then a great many varieties have 
been introduced, most of them being chance seedlings 
that have attracted attention on account of the special 
excellence of their fruit. 

The Black Raspberry is distinguished from other 
raspberries chiefly by the purplish black color of its fruit 
and the habit of forming new plants from the tips of the 
canes as they bend over and touch the ground. Some- 
times vines bearing yellow fruit are found. These 
" sports" have been introduced under such names as 
Goldencap, Yellowcap, and American White. 

177 



178 CROP PRODUCTION 

Black Raspberries have become important commercial 
fruits in practically all northern markets and have also 
been largely utilized for drying. The fact that the berries 
are fairly firm enables them to stand shipment better 
than the red raspberries. The evaporated product is 
on sale throughout the year and has led to the establish- 
ment of great plantations in the neighborhood of the 
evaporating factories. In a single county in New York 
one thousand tons of dried raspberries have been pro- 
duced annually. 

Culture 

Black Raspberries thrive in a deep, rich, loamy soil. 
On a large scale they are planted in hills five or six feet 
apart each way and cultivated in both directions by 
horse power. On a smaller scale and in home gardens 
they are set in rows about four feet apart, the plants 
being about three feet apart in the row. The trans- 
planting is best done in early spring. The plants should 
be set three or four inches deep and gradually covered 
deeper as the new shoots develop. When thus set 
rather deep they withstand dry weather better because 
the roots are further from the surface and the canes 
being more deeply imbedded in the soil are less likely 
to be blown over than when the plants are set nearer the 
surface. All large canes should be cut back severely. 

The Raspberry plantation requires frequent tillage to 
conserve moisture and prevent the growth of weeds. 
It is especially important to keep out witch-grass or 
other grasses having a similar habit of growth. The 
young canes should be cut or pinched off as soon as they 
reach a height of two feet: they will lengthen some after 



THE RASPBERRIES 179 

this and will send out numerous side branches which 
will bear fruit the next season. After four or five good 
canes have started from each hill, any others should be 
cut out. As soon after the crop is harvested as possible 
all the old canes should be removed, cutting off as low 
as possible, and promptly burned to destroy insect and 
fungous pests. 

Enemies 
Of the numerous enemies of Black Raspberries the 
Anthracnose is most generally troublesome. It appears 
on the young shoots in early summer as small, reddish- 
purple spots scattered over the bark. These spots 
increase in size rapidly, their centers becoming grayish 
white. Each spot is surrounded by a purplish margin. 
As the weeks go by the spots become larger and more 
numerous, often running together in long blotches. 
As both bark and sapwood are affected the supply of sap 
to leaves and fruit is partially cut off, frequently causing 
much loss to the crop. The parasitic fungus which 
causes the trouble reproduces by means of spores that 
develop upon the diseased spots. Consequently the 
cutting and burning of the canes as soon as the fruit is 
picked is an important preventive measure. 

The Red and the Purple Raspberries 

The cultivated Red Raspberries include three rather 
distinct groups of varieties, namely: (1) those derived 
from the European Red Raspberry, Rubus idaeus; 
(2) those derived from the American Red Raspberry, 
Rubus strigosus; (3) those derived from the Purple-cane 
Raspberry, Rubus neglectus. 

The European Red Raspberry is found wild over a vast 



180 CROP PRODUCTION 

region in Europe and Asia. Its fruit has doubtless been 
relished by mankind ever since human beings appeared 
upon the earth and forms of it have been cultivated for 
at least sixteen centuries. A great many improved varie- 
ties are now grown in Europe and many have been intro- 
duced into America during the last hundred years. Most 
of these, however, have not proved hardy in our climate, so 
that very few of them are now grown here. The fruit of 
these European sorts is generally larger and of finer qual- 
ity than those derived from our wild red raspberry. 

The American Red Raspberry is native to the great 
northern region extending from the Atlantic Ocean west 
to Arizona and Missouri and north to Alaska. It is 
generally abundant and as a wild plant yields a fair 
quality of fruit. Most of the varieties now in cultiva- 
tion have been derived from chance seedlings that have 
been brought into gardens and given good culture. These 
varieties are generally hardy in our climate and have the 
habit of ripening their fruit during a much shorter period 
than the European varieties. The latter point is of 
special advantage in growing for market, as the fruit 
can be gathered with fewer pickings. Both these types 
of red raspberries multiply by suckers sent up from 
the roots. Cuthbert, Turner, and Loudon are three of 
of the best American Red Raspberries. 

The Purple-cane Raspberries or the Purple Rasp- 
berries are believed to have been derived from a natural 
hybrid between the Blackcap and the American Red 
Raspberries. The fruit is of a purplish red intermediate 
between the colors of the fruits of these two species, and 
the plants multiply both from the tips like the blackcaps 
and from root suckers like the reds. As a rule these are 



THE RASPBERRIES 181 

vigorous growers, requiring more room than the Ameri- 
can red sorts. Shaffer and Columbia are two of the 
best Purple Raspberries. 

Culture 

The Red Raspberries thrive best in a rich, cool, moist, 
well-drained, loamy soil. On light thin soils they are 
likely to suffer from drouth before or during the fruiting 
season, and on soils too moist or too rich in nitrogen they 
are likely to grow to vine rather than to fruit. New 
plants are commonly obtained from suckers, though 
sometimes from root-cuttings. Better plants are 
obtained from the latter. The plants are set three feet 
apart in rows about four feet apart. They should be 
set in fall or very early in spring. Good tillage should 
be given to prevent the growth of weeds and to conserve 
moisture. As soon as the old canes have fruited they 
should be cut out and burned to destroy insects and 
fungi and to force the growth into the new canes. With 
free-suckering varieties about half the suckers should be 
destroyed when hoeing. In the northern states winter 
protection is often necessary. Summer mulching is desir- 
able in home gardens, especially during the fruiting season. 

In addition to removing the old canes after fruiting 
the only pruning necessary is to keep down superfluous 
suckers and cut off the canes each spring at a height of 
about three feet. This causes them to send out side 
branches and to stand up better than if left unpruned. 

Those varieties of Purple-cane Raspberries that form 
new plants at the tips of the canes are to be treated like 
the black caps. Those that form new plants from root 
suckers are to be treated like the reds. 




SMALL FRUITS: BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 

General Characters 

How can you tell a blackberry fruit from a raspberry 
fruit? 

How can you tell a blackberry bush from a blackcap 
raspberry bush? 

How can you tell a blackberry bush from a red rasp- 
berry bush? 

How can you tell a blackberry bush from a dewberry 
bush? 

Learn what varieties of blackberries and dewberries 
are grown in your district. 

Mount pictures in your booklets. 



Fungous Diseases 

Do you find blackberry or dewberry leaves affected 
by an orange rust? 

Cut off and burn such affected branches. 



BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 

When a ripe raspberry is picked the fruit separates 
from the receptacle. When a ripe blackberry is picked 
the fruit remains upon the receptacle. This is the 
most important difference between the raspberries and 
the blackberries and dewberries. Both belong to the 
great genus Rubus, the commonly cultivated blackberries 
representing at least three distinct wild species native to 
America. 

As a cultivated fruit the Blackberry has been known 
only since about 1840. Various varieties have been 
introduced since that time, but even yet there are com- 
paratively few of these. The abundance of the wild 
blackberries, often to be had for the picking, has prob- 
ably been an important reason why the plants are so 
little cultivated. Well-grown garden fruit of the im- 
proved varieties is, however, greatly superior to the 
wild blackberries. 

Blackberries normally reproduce from true root- 
suckers sent up around the parent plant. When cut 
off and transplanted these suckers thrive and new 
plantations are commonly started with them. Plants 
also grow readily from root-cuttings, and this method 
is often -used for propagating them. In most northern 
regions the transplanting should be done in early spring, 
though farther south it may be done in autumn. The 
newly set plants should be cut back to a height of five 
or six inches. 

183 



1 84 CROP PRODUCTION 

Culture 

Blackberries thrive best in a moist, rich soil, though it 
should not be too rich in nitrogen or canes will grow at 
the expense of fruit. They sucker so freely that they 
should be set at least four or five feet apart in the rows 
and the rows at least six feet apart if horse cultivation 
is to be given. On bearing plantations the young canes 
should be cut off each season as soon as they are two 
feet high. They will then lengthen out a foot or more, 
and will develop strong buds or branches along their 
sides. In this way the crop of fruit the following year 
will be much better than if the canes are left unpruned 
till fall or spring. The old canes should be cut close to 
the ground as soon as they have finished fruiting. After 
cutting they should be promptly burned. 

Winter protection by means of a mulch of litter or 
soil is very desirable for blackberry canes. With tender 
varieties it is essential at the north to prevent winter 
killing, the commonest trouble in growing this fruit. 

Dewberries 
Dewberries are trailing blackberries. Instead of send- 
ing the main stalk up vertically it trails along the ground 
and sends up short fruiting branches. Instead also of 
propagating by suckers sent up from the roots the dew- 
berries propagate by layers of the prostrate canes. They 
are of much less importance than the blackberries, but 
are of value in home gardens, giving a delicious fruit 
that ripens earlier than the blackberry. The Lucretia 
Dewberry is the best variety for most fruit-growing 
regions. On the Pacific Coast the Loganberry, which 
is closely related to the Dewberry, is a valuable fruit. 



BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 185 

Enemies 

Blackberries and dewberries are comparatively free 
from insect and fungous enemies. Leaves and young 
stems are sometimes attacked by the Orange Rust. 
Whenever this occurs the affected plants should be 
promptly dug up and burned, both to destroy the fungus 
and to avoid propagating new plants from those which 
are not resistant to the attacks of the parasite. The 
Blackberry Cane-borer is sometimes troublesome in 
neglected plantations, but it is readily kept in check if 
the old canes are cut out and burned each summer as 
soon as the fruiting season is over. 




SMALL FRUITS: THE STRAWBERRY 

The Flower and its Variations 

Bring in several blossoms from different strawberry 
plants. Compare them with the pictures above. 

Do you find that some have few or no stamens while 
others have many stamens? 

Watch the flowers outdoors on a sunny day. Do bees 
and other insects visit them and fly from one to another? 

Hold a reading glass over a flower which a bee is visit- 
ing. Does any pollen get on the legs and body? 

Would this pollen be likely to be carried to another 
flower? 

Varieties 

What varieties of strawberries are grown in your 
district? Make a list under these headings: 

Perfect Imperfect 



Are any fall-bearing strawberries grown in your 
district? 

1 86 



STRAWBERRIES 



187 



Strawberry Leaf- blight 

Find strawberry leaves showing the spots of this 
disease. 

Can you find similar spots on wild strawberry leaves? 

Starting a Strawberry Bed 

Each pupil who can get even a small plot of land for 
the purpose should start a strawberry bed. 

Enrich and dig up the soil thoroughly. Dig out and 
burn all witch-grass or quack-grass roots. 

Spring is the best time to set the plants. If the 
main planting is of an imperfect variety, be sure to set 
about one-third as many of a perfect variety, placing 
rows of the perfect between those of the imperfect. 




QUACK GRASS 



THE STRAWBERRY 

The Strawberry is the most popular of small fruits. 
It is grown in practically all home gardens worthy the 
name and in enormous quantities in practically all 
market garden regions. From the time the crops begin 
to ripen in the southern states in March until the last 
berries have matured in Nova Scotia in July the markets 
of the larger cities are supplied with strawberries. 

The cultivated Strawberry has been developed chiefly 
from a plant called Fragaria Chiloensis. It is a native 
of Chili, from whence it was carried to Europe more than 
two centuries ago. Various attempts have been made 
to improve our native wild strawberry, but with small 
success. 

Culture 

Strawberries thrive best in a cool, moist, rich soil. 
The young plants produced from runners bear trans- 
planting readily. In the south they are commonly set 
out in autumn, but in the north spring is the better 
season. There are many methods of culture, some 
growers preferring to keep each plant in a separate hill, 
others preferring wide matted rows, and others narrow 
sparse rows. The more root room and air space each 
plant has the better will be the fruit it produces. It is 
better to renew the plantation every two or three years 
than to attempt to keep old plantations in bearing 
condition. 

1 88 



STRAWBERRIES 189 

Hundreds of varieties of Strawberries are now known. 
New ones are being introduced and old ones discarded 
every year. To a large extent successful varieties are 
local; they may thrive in one region and be of little value 
in another. So the safest way is to select for the 
main planting those sorts that do best in the 
neighborhood. 

Flower Structure 

In order to succeed in strawberry culture it is impor- 
tant to know that the flowers of many varieties possess 
few or no stamens while others possess an abundance 
of them. This condition is illustrated in the picture 
on page 186: on the left the stamen-bearing or perfect or 
staminate blossom is represented; on the right the 
pistil-bearing or imperfect or pistillate blossom is repre- 
sentee!. It should be noted, however, that the so-called 
staminate flower possesses an abundance of pistils as 
well as stamens; so it is better to call it a perfect 
flower. 

We know that the pistils of flowers must be fertilized 
by pollen if seeds and fruits are to develop. So it is 
evident that an acre of strawberries of a variety having 
only pistillate blossoms would be likely to yield very 
little fruit, although an acre of a variety having perfect 
flowers might set fruit in abundance. By mixing the 
two types of varieties, however, we can get good results 
because the small bees which visit the flowers so freely 
will carry the pollen to practically all the blossoms and 
thus help us in the useful work of pollenizing both kinds 
of flowers. So experienced growers always plant rows 
of staminate sorts along with pistillate varieties. 



190 CROP PRODUCTION 

Fall-Bearing Varieties 

The greatest objection to the Strawberry has been the 
shortness of its season. In any locality a month was 
about the limit of its productiveness, even if early, mid- 
season, and late varieties were planted. There is now a 
good prospect, however, that this season may be greatly 
extended by the introduction of a new type of plant that 
blossoms through the summer. 

A few years ago a variety called the Pan-American 
Strawberry was introduced. It was claimed to bear 
fruit throughput the summer and early autumn. The 
public was sceptical at first, but those who tested the 
claims reported that they were true. Various seedlings 
of this variety were introduced later and proved to be 
productive through a long period. These ever-bearing 
strawberries established their claims so well that m the 
fall of 1 910 the fruit growers of western New York were 
selling the berries in considerable quantities. The fruit 
found a ready market at twenty-five cents a quart. 

Enemies 

The Leaf-blight is the most destructive fungous disease 
of the strawberry. It may be found to a greater or less 
extent in almost any plantation, showing as distinct dis- 
colored spots upon the leaflets. It is more injurious 
on beds of long standing than those which are rotated 
frequently. In regions where there is plenty of rain in 
summer it is sometimes worth while to mow the leaves 
off after the crop is picked and then to burn the surface 
over when the leaves become dry. The fungus spores 
are thus destroyed and the new crop of leaves that soon 



STRAWBERRIES 



191 



appears is likely to show little damage by the blight. 
Spraying with fungicides is also helpful. 

Various insects are at times destructive to Strawberry 
plants. The Strawberry Root-louse attacks the roots; 
the Strawberry Leaf- roller attacks the foliage; the 
Strawberry Weevil attacks the buds and stems of the 
staminate varieties. These and other insects are much 
less likely to be troublesome where the strawberry beds 
are fruited but a year or two and then promptly plowed 
under, another crop being used in rotation next season. 
This is really the best method to grow the fruit, so these 
insect enemies are helpful in promoting good horticul- 
tural practice. 




IV 
FARM CROPS 





194 




FARM CROPS: INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE 

Com Exhibition 

Plan a corn exhibition at the school. If there is a 
Corn Club in the school let the Club take charge of the 
exhibition. 

If there is no Corn Club plan for as good an exhibition 
as you can have. Let each pupil bring some of the best 
ears he can get. Arrange these by varieties. 

Have different sets of pupils judge the exhibition to see 
which should be awarded prizes. 

If possible have the yield per acre named in connec- 
tion with each exhibit. 

Scoring Com 

Several good ears of corn. 

Let each pupil score two or three ears, using the score 
card on page 201. 

Germination Test 

Let each pupil bring in one or more ears of corn, the 
best that can be found. 

Remove from each ear the badly shaped kernels at 

195 



i 9 6 CROP PRODUCTION 

the base and tip and discard them. This is the process 
of nubbing the ear. 

Select five kernels from each ear, one from near each 
end and three from the intermediate spaces, each kernel 
coming from a different row, so that all sides of the ear 
will be represented. 

Let each pupil fill a small paper flower pot with clean 
dry sand to within an inch of the top. Lay the five 
kernels on top of the sand, distributing them over the 
space. Cover them one-half inch deep with more sand. 
Insert a wooden or pasteboard label in each pot, printing 
the number of the ear, the name of the pupil, and the 
date on the label. 

These pots are now to be watered and placed in a sunny 
window where they will all have the same conditions of 
light and heat. A shallow pan or zinc tray to hold them 
is desirable, but not necessary. In a few days the seeds 
will germinate; they should be kept growing until the 
little plants are two or three inches high. Then a 
careful examination and record should be made and all 
ears which show even one poor kernel out of the five 
should be discarded for seed purposes. The seedlings 
will make excellent objects for study and drawing. 

Instead of paper flower pots ordinary flower pots or 
shallow boxes of almost any kind may be used, but the 
pots are simpler and easier to handle. They are not 
seriously injured by being used for seed testing. 

Fungous Diseases 

Have you ever seen an ear of corn affected by corn 
smut? How did it look? 

Is smut more abundant on sweet corn than on field 



INDIAN CORN 



197 



corn in your district? Read pages 228-229 m Farm 
Friends and Farm Foes. 

Did you ever see corn leaves with spots of orange 
rust upon them? This is the corn rust. 

Insect Enemies 

If the school is in a region where chinch bugs are 
found let each pupil see some of the insects through a 
lens. Read pages 109-111 in Farm Friends and Farm 
Foes. 

In spring cutworms may often be found under boards 
lying on the ground along the borders of corn fields. 
Read pages 109-111 in Farm Friends and Farm Foes. 

Young corn plants that seem sickly are often infested 
by the root aphis. Dig up such plants carefully and see 
if you find the aphides and the little brown ants that 
attend them. Read pages 92-93 in Farm Friends and 
Farm Foes. See what other insects affecting corn you 
can find in your district. 




CORN 

AVERAGE ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION 
DEC/iD£(/899 -/908) 

IN M/LL/dN S O F BUSHELS 



INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE 

Corn is one of the great gifts of the American continent 
to the food products of the world. From prehistoric 
times it has been grown by the American Indians of 
many races in various parts of both North and South 
America, so that when European races first appeared 
Corn was found to be the staple food of the natives. 
Its value was at once recognized and the plant was 
introduced to other countries, but North America has 
always retained its supremacy in Corn growing. It now 
produces four times as much corn as all the rest of the 
world. 

There is good evidence that the Corn plant originated 
in Mexico as a sport or hybrid of Teosinte, a giant grass 
of that region. When Columbus discovered the island 
of Hayti he found that Corn was grown and was called 
"mahiz" by the Indians. This is the origin of the word 
Maize, which has been commonly applied to the plant 
since. In Europe wheat is generally spoken of as corn, 
but in America the name is always applied to Indian 
Corn. 

Classification and Structure 

Corn is a giant grass with the pollen-bearing or 
staminate flowers in tassels at the upper end of the 
stalk and the seed-bearing or pistillate flowers in a 
spike along the side. The "silks" that project from 



INDIAN CORN 199 

the latter receive the pollen from the former, thus fertil- 
izing the ovules and causing the development of the 
kernels. The young plant is furnished with two sorts 
of roots, the regular feeding roots that grow from the 
sprouting kernel and the adventitious roots that grow 
from the stalk a little above ground and serve as brace 
roots in helping to keep the stalks erect as well as feeding 
roots. 

Two important types of field corn are grown — Flint 
Corn and Dent Corn. Flint corn is most largely grown in 
northern regions, while Dent corn is the prevailing type 
in the Corn belt . Great improvements have been made 
in recent years in perfecting strains and varieties of both 
types, the total yield having been increased by millions 
of bushels through careful breeding and selection of 
seed. 

In commercial value Corn is the most important crop 
grown in the United States. More than a hundred 
millions of acres yielding more than two billion bushels 
are planted yearly. The money value of the crop gen- 
erally exceeds a billion dollars. More than twice as 
many acres of corn are planted as of wheat, and about 
four times as many bushels of corn are produced. 

Culture 

A deep, fertile, well-drained soil with an abundance 
of humus and in good tilth is desirable for the growth of 
corn. Sod land plowed the previous fall is especially 
good, except that it renders greater the clanger of injury 
by white grubs, cutworms, and other grass-feeding 
insects. The seed is planted as soon as the soil warms 
up, so that it will germinate quickly and danger from 



200 CROP PRODUCTION 

injury by frosts be over. The proverbial time for 
planting corn is when the oak leaves are as large as 
squirrels' ears. On a large scale the seed is commonly 
planted in check rows, three and one-half feet apart, so 
that the cultivator can be run in both directions, thus 
keeping the weeds down with little hand labor. As 
the plants get larger the cultivation must be shallow or 
the roots near the surface will be broken off. The 
details of culture and methods of harvesting vary with 
the locality and the area planted. It is highly impor- 
tant that Corn be planted as a part of a system of rota- 
tion in order to maintain the fertility of the soil. 

Selecting and Testing Seed Com 

During recent years the importance of selecting and 
testing carefully the seed corn to be planted has been 
more and more appreciated. By such care the quality 
and quantity of the yield may be greatly increased and 
consequently the profit of growing the crop be also 
increased. Every vacant hill in a field of corn is a 
distinct loss and anything that can be done to prevent 
such vacancies means a clear gain. 

It is now generally recognized that the only way to 
proceed in selecting corn is to choose the ear as the 
unit. It is preferable that such ears be chosen in the 
field when the characters of the parent plant as to 
earliness, height, mode of growth, and other things may 
be considered, but where this is not done the individual 
ears should be carefully selected as to their appearance. 
"These physical characteristics and properties," as 
Professor Hopkins says, "include the length, circum- 
ference and shape of the ear and of the cob; the number 



CORN SCORE CARD 
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station 

Name of Variety 

Class 



Sample Number 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Points 
Trueness to Type 15 






















Shape of Ears 10 












— 








Length of Ears 10 




















Circumference of Ears 5 






















Tips of Ears 5 






















Butts of Ears 5 






















Color of Kernels and Cobs 10 






















Uniformity of Kernels 10 






















Shape of Kernels 10 






















Spacing of Kernels 10 






















Seed Condition 10 






















Total 100 























Remarks: 



202 CROP PRODUCTION 

of rows of kernels and the number of kernels in the row; 
the weight and color of the grain and of the cob; and the 
size and shape of the kernels." Many score cards have 
been prepared for judging corn according to these char- 
acteristics: one such card is printed on the previous 
page. 

The corn planted for seed should come from such 
selected ears. The kernels of each ear should be tested 
for germination and growth before planting and all 
which are inferior in this respect should be discarded. 
A simple and interesting test may be easily made in the 
schoolroom, in accordance with the directions already 
given. 

Pupils who have many ears to be tested at home may 
well make such a testing box as is shown in the picture 
on page 203. It is described by F. W. Howe in these 
words: 

" The only materials needed are a shallow wooden tray, 
a small handful of carpet tacks, a few yards of wrapping 
twine, sand enough to fill the tray, and three or four 
quarts of water. The tray (or several of them) can 
easily be sawed from an empty soap or cracker box. 
When finished, it should be about i| inches deep inside, 
15 inches wide, and 23 inches long; but any of these 
dimensions may be varied slightly. This tray is divided 
into small squares by a checkerboard lacing of twine 
across the top. It is convenient to have these squares 
about 1^ inches on a side, ten of them in a row across the 
narrow way of the tray, and fifteen the other way. 

"The picture shows the general appearance of such a 
tray and the method of lacing the twine back and forth 
across the tray and under the tacks. This lacing with 



INDIAN CORN 203 

the string should not be done until the tray has been 
loosely filled with dry sand heaped up a little above its 
top edge. Then the sand should be scraped off with a 
yardstick, or other straightedge, even with the top of 
the tray. After lacing with the string the tray is then 
ready for planting." 




Sand Tray for Testing Seed Corn 

Five kernels of corn from various parts of one ear are 
placed in each square. All are covered with sand and 
left to germinate and grow until about two inches high. 
An examination then readily shows which ears should 
be discarded for seed. 

The Rag Doll Seed Tester 

A simple way of testing individual ears is described 
by H. D. Hughes of the Iowa Experiment Station. He 
calls it the Rag Doll Method. 

"In preparing to make this test, secure sheeting of a 
good quality and tear into strips from 8 to 10 inches wide 
and 3 to 5 feet long. Where these are to be used very 



204 CROP PRODUCTION 

much it is well to hem the edges as otherwise the ravel- 
ings sometimes disarrange the kernels in unrolling. 
Each cloth should then be marked with a heavy pencil, 
first, lengthwise in the middle and then crosswise, as 
shown in the accompanying illustration, making squares 
about 3 inches wide. Number the squares as shown in 
the illustration also. 

"Moisten one of these cloths and lay it out on a board 
of convenient size in front of the ears which are to be 
tested. Remove six kernels from ear No. i and place 
in the square No. i in the upper left-hand corner of the 
cloth. Take six kernels from ear No. 2 and place in 
square No. 2 in the upper right-hand corner, ear No. 3 
in the next square on the left-hand side, and ear No. 4 
in a corresponding position on the right side. When 
the cloth has been filled begin at the upper end with 
ears Nos. 1 and 2, etc., and roll the cloth up. Since the 
cloth is moistened the kernels will not push out of place. 
If a small irregular shaped piece of wood or some other 
substance is used as a core in rolling, a more uniform 
germination may be secured. When the rolling of the 
cloth has been finished, tie a string rather loosely about 
the middle of the roll; or better still, use a rubber band, 
and number this roll No. 1 . Then proceed with roll No. 2 
in the same way. As many rolls may be used as are 
necessary to contain the corn which one has to test. 
From 20 to 50 ears can be tested in each roll, depending 
upon the length. 

"After the rolls have been filled they should be placed 
in a bucket of water where they may remain for from 
2 to 18 hours, depending upon the preference of the 
operator. At the end of this time pour off the water 



INDIAN CORN 



205 



and turn the bucket up-side-down over the rolls — or a 
common dry goods box may be used for this purpose. 
A couple of small pieces of wood should preferably be 
lafd under the rolls and one edge of the pail should be 
lifted from one-half to one inch in order to give sufficient 
ventilation. ... At the end of five days the kernels 
should be ready to read. 




Rag Doll Seed Tester 

This may be made at home or bought of a hardware dealer for ten cents 

"Depending upon the arrangement of the ears, select, 
first either roll No. 1 or the last roll filled. This cloth 
will be unrolled in front of the ears which are represented. 
Examine all kernels carefully. In all cases in which 
six kernels are not strong in germination the ear should 
be thrown away." 

Fungous Diseases 

For a crop that has been grown in such quantities over 
so large an area and during so long a period, Indian corn 
is remarkably free from fungous diseases. Rust and 
Smut are practically the only widespread diseases and 
neither is injurious to any great degree. Corn Rust is 
indeed of scarcely any practical importance, while the 



206 



CROP PRODUCTION 




Corn Smut 



Smut becomes appreciably destructive only when proper 
crop rotation is neglected. 

Corn Smut is familiar to every farmer and most gar- 
deners; for it is especially troublesome in gardens where 
sweet corn is grown year after year. The disease attacks 

both ears and tassels, 
generally the former. 
It first shows on the 
ears as a white, mal- 
formed mass, repre- 
senting usually only 
a portion of the ker- 
nels. The mass soon 
becomes darker and 
finally develops into a blackish powder that consists of 
millions of tiny spores. The disease is spread by these 
spores which infest young plants. The pulling and 
burning of diseased plants and regular crop rotations 
are effective preventives. 

Insect Enemies 

The corn plant has been much less fortunate in the 
case of its insect enemies than in that of its fungous 
foes. A host of sucking and biting insects prey upon 
root, stalk, leaf, and ear, often causing enormous losses. 

The Corn Root-worms are among the most serious of 
these pests: there are two species, the Northern and the 
Southern. The Northern Corn Root-worm infests most 
of the corn belt. A small green beetle lays eggs in the 
corn fields in autumn. These eggs hatch in spring into 
slender worms that attack the roots, and mature into 
another generation of green beetles during the summer. 




INDIAN CORN 207 

The Southern Corn Root-worm is the more destructive 
in the south. The adult is a small yellow beetle with 
black spots that feeds upon a great variety of succulent 
plants. Rotation of the crop is an efficient remedy for 
the northern species and is helpful for the southern. 

Corn roots are often attacked by the 
Corn Root Aphis, which is always asso- 
ciated in an interesting way with a small 
brown ant that burrows channels in the 
soil beside the roots to make room for 
the aphides. The latter suck the juices 

of the roots, causing a dwarfing of the 

' .° ° Chinch Bug 

plants. Rotation is the best preventive. M nifi , 

Corn is a favorite food plant for the 
notorious Chinch Bug, one of the most destructive 
American insects. This pest attacks any of the grain 
crops and when abundant often ruins whole fields. The 
adult insects pass the winter in the shelter of leaves, 
grass roots, boards, stones, or other protection and 
scatter to grain fields in spring. Eggs are laid upon 
the grain plants, several hundred being laid by one bug, 
and the little bugs that soon hatch suck the sap from 
leaves and stalks. They molt several times before be- 
coming full grown in early summer. They then lay eggs 
for a second brood more abundant than the first. Burn- 
ing over the winter quarters of the pests is one of the 
most effective remedies. 

The Cutworm is proverbial as an enemy to corn. 
Witness the old rhyme about planting: 

One for the cutworm, 

One for the crow, 
One for the blackbird, 

And three to grow. 



208 CROP PRODUCTION 

There are at least a dozen kinds of Cutworms that 
may attack corn and their injuries are often very serious. 
They usually live through the winter as half-grown larvae, 
so they are ready to devour almost any green and suc- 
culent plant when spring comes. They travel at night 
from hill to hill, cutting off the stalks just above the 
ground, and bury themselves in the soil by day. 
They soon become full grown as larvae, burrow into the 
soil, and change to pupae, to change again a little later 
to night-flying moths about an inch long. These moths 
are attracted to grasslands to lay their eggs, and so it 
happens that corn on sod land is much more likely to 
suffer from cutworm attack than that which has been in 
cultivated crops. 

Many other insects are at times injurious to corn. 
Wireworms attack the roots, Army-worms and grass- 
hoppers attack the leaves, Corn-worms and Ear-worms 
attack the ears. These and other pests are more or less 
local, however, and like most of the other corn enemies 
are least injurious where good agriculture brings clean 
culture and regular rotations. 





Nymph Aduli 

GRASSHOPPER 




WHEAT 

AVERAGE ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION 
DECJDE//899-/308) 



GRAIN CROPS: WHEAT 

Small Grain Exhibit 

Have a little exhibit of small grains, especially wheat, 
rye, barley, and oats. Let pupils bring grains or heads 
so far as they can. Mount pictures from seed catalogues. 

Let each pupil learn to recognize each grain so he can 
name kernel or head. After the exhibition has been on 
a few days have a recognition test applied to each pupil. 

Germination Test 

Ten seeds for each pupil. 

Determine percentage of germination. 

Draw a seed after germination. 

Growing Seedlings 

Grow seedlings in window box collectively or in flower 
pots individually till they are a few inches high. 

Draw when they are an inch high; also when three 
inches high. 

209 



210 CROP PRODUCTION 

Crop Rotation 

Learn what crop rotations are practiced by local 
wheat growers. 

Which rotations seem to bring the largest yields per 
acre? 

Fungous Diseases 

Which wheat rusts can you find in your locality? If 
both are present which is more destructive? Read 
pages 235-237, Farm Friends and Farm Foes. 

Are some varieties of wheat more subject to rust than 
others in your region? What varieties are most nearly 
rust proof? 

Can you find both kinds of Wheat Smut in your 
locality? Which is more destructive? 

Do any farmers in your region treat their seed to 
prevent Smut? If so what is the result? 

If the loss from wheat diseases in your township is 
ten per cent of the crop, what is the money loss? 

Hessian Fly 

Inquire of farmers who grow wheat whether the crop 
has been injured by Hessian flies in recent years. 

If any field is now infested bring specimens of injured 
stalks to school so that each pupil can see the insects. 

If examples of the flax-seed stage are found, keep alive 
in a covered jelly glass or similar receptacle to rear the 
adult flies. 

Learn what preventive measures are in use against the 
Hessian fly. Read pages 123-124, Farm Friends and 
Farm Foes. 



WHEAT 



211 



Other Insects 

What other insect enemies of wheat occur in your 
district? 

Do cutworms, grasshoppers, or leaf-hoppers cause 
much injury? 

Look in the wheat fields for the wheat bulb worm, 
the joint worm, or the wheat midge. 




WHEAT 

From time immemorial Wheat has been grown for 
human food. It has always been the staple food of the 
most highly civilized peoples and it seems likely to con- 
tinue to hold its high place for ages to come. Bread, 
the finished product of the Wheat kernels, is universally 
recognized as the staff of life. 

In all their wanderings over the habitable globe the 
European races have carried the Wheat plant with them. 
Wherever they have stayed the seed has been sown, and 
if the conditions permitted the grain has been harvested. 
Consequently the plant has been subjected to innumer- 
able changes of soil, climate, and culture, and it has 
responded to those conditions in such a way that many 
well-marked types of varieties have been developed and 
are now grown in America. They are grouped first into 
Winter Wheats, sown in autumn and living over winter 
as young plants, and Spring Wheats, sown in spring and 
harvested the succeeding summer. 

These in turn are subdivided thus: 
Winter wheats: Soft, semi-hard, hard 
Spring wheats: Soft, hard, Durum or Macaroni 

In general each of these types is suited to certain great 
regions where it is chiefly grown. The hard wheats are 
especially prized for making flour, while the very hard 
Durum or Macaroni wheats are utilized for making 
macaroni. 

213 



214 CROP PRODUCTION 

Culture 

Wheat is universally grown as a field crop with the 
seed drilled or broadcasted over the soil. The details 
of time of planting, kind of soil, fertilizers and place in 
the rotation differ with the locality and the type, but in 
general Wheat is a crop for extensive rather than inten- 
sive farming methods. The processes of preparing the 
land, seeding and harvesting and threshing are done to 
best advantage on a large scale by expensive machinery. 
So the crop is especially adapted to the immense fields 
of the fertile west and northwest, where the so-called 
bonanza farms are the prevailing type. This does not 
mean, however, that Wheat cannot be profitably grown 
on a smaller scale in other regions, for it is recognized as 
one of the most profitable crops for the general farmer 
over a large part of the United States. 

To be grown successfully over a considerable period of 
years Wheat must be fitted into a rotation with other 
crops, preferably with a series in which clover, cowpeas, 
or some other nitrogen-gathering legume is included. 
In the great diversity of regions in which Wheat is 
grown in America there are many different rotations 
of crops that include it. Some of the most important 
are these: 

Potatoes, Wheat, Clover 

Corn, Wheat, Clover 

Corn, Cowpeas, Wheat, Clover 

Corn, Oats, Wheat, Clover 

Potatoes, Oats, Wheat, Clover 
Sugar-beets, Wheat, Alfalfa (continuing several 
seasons) . 



WHEAT 215 

Improving Varieties 
A great deal of attention has been given during recent 
years to improving Wheat by breeding and selection. 
Many new varieties of great value have been obtained 
as well as greatly improved strains of the older varieties. 
In some extremely valuable work conducted by the 
Minnesota Experiment Station under the direction of 
Professor W. M. Hays an increased yield of from two to 
nearly five bushels of grain per acre was obtained in a 
very few years. Large heavy kernels are best for seeding, 
and an interesting machine has lately been devised for sep- 
arating these from the lighter kernels. The grain is shot 
from a revolving cylinder in such a way that the centrifu- 
gal force sends the heaviest grains farther than the others. 

Fungous Diseases 

It is not surprising that so important a crop as wheat, 
gown from time immemorial in so many parts of the 
world, should have numerous natural enemies. Para- 
sitic fungi of several kinds and insects in great variety 
have found in various parts of the wheat plants favorable 
opportunities for food and growth. The yearly loss due 
to these enemies amounts to many millions of dollars, a 
large proportion of which might be saved by the intelli- 
gent application of the best agricultural methods. 

Two distinct species of rust fungi attack wheat — the 
Black Stem Rust and the Orange Leaf Rust. The first 
is the most destructive, causing a shriveling of the wheat 
kernels that results in greatly reduced yields. The 
second is more universal in its distribution, being found 
in practically every wheat field every year, but it does 
less damage because it affects kernels less seriously. The 



2l6 



CROP PRODUCTION 



most promising methods of preventing both these 
diseases is that of planting rust-resisting varieties, 
many of which are now known. 

Two distinct species of Smut 
fungi attack wheat heads — the 
Bunt or Foul-smelling Smut and 
the Loose Smut. The Bunt in- 
fests only the wheat kernels, so 
that it does not show as conspicu- 
ously in the heads as the Loose 
Smut, which infests both kernels 
and chaff. Both of these diseases 
are common in North America and 
often cause the loss of millions of 
dollars a year. 

Hessian Fly 

The Hessian Fly is the most de- 

\ structive special insect enemy of 

the wheat crop, though at times 
Hessian Fly , . . . 

, greater damage may be done by 

i. Infested plant 2. Eggs on leaf 

the Chinch Bugs and Army- Worms 
which attack other grains in addition to wheat. Good 
authorities estimate that the average annual loss of 
wheat due to the Hessian Fly is ten per cent, or about 
40,000,000 bushels. Of course the damage at times is 
much greater than this in certain regions where the crop 
maybe reduced one-half or more, if not completely ruined. 
It occurs practically throughout the principal wheat re- 
gions of the United States. It is called the Hessian 
Fly because it is supposed that it was first brought to 
America by the Hessian soldiers during the Revolution. 




WHEAT 



217 




In winter wheat regions damage by the Hessian Fly 
may often be prevented by late seeding, although the 
time when this is effect- 
ive varies with the lo- 
cality and the season. 
Many of the insects in 
the flax-seed stage pass 
the summer in wheat 
stubble. These may be 
destroyed by burning 
over the stubble fields or 
plowing deeply and roll- 
ing. An adequate sys- 
tem of crop rotation is 
very helpful in prevent- 
ing outbreaks, while the 
selection of varieties 
having strong stems or 
the habit of tillering 
freely is helpful in pre- 
venting damage when the pest is present. The adult Hes- 
sian Fly is shown much magnified in the picture below. 





Hessian Fly 

3. Larva. 4. Puparium or "flaxseed." 
5. Pupa. Magnified. 





OATS 

AVERAGE ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION 
OECADEf/399 -/908) 

JM MILLIONS OFBUSHClS 



GRAIN CROPS: OATS 



Types of Heads 



Let pupils bring to school good heads of oats grown at 
home. Get the name of the variety when possible. 
Arrange these oats heads into two groups: 



Spreading or open Panicle 



Banner or Side Panicle 



Seed Testing 

Twenty seeds for each pupil. 

Place in germination box and determine percentage of 
viable seeds. 



218 



OATS 



219 



Varieties 

Learn what varieties of oats are grown in your district. 
Let pupils find out facts to put on the blackboard 
under these headings: 

Yields of Oats per Acre 
Highest Lowest Average 



Enemies 

Learn which of these diseases occur in the school 
district: loose smut, stem rust. 

Do local farmers treat the oats to prevent smut? 
Are oats plants troubled by any insect enemies? 




OATS 

Oats rank with wheat and corn in the number of 
bushels grown in the world. Thus in 1904 there were 
produced on all the continents 

Oats, 3,336,179,000 bushels 
Corn, 3,058,021,000 bushels 
Wheat, 3,162,340,000 bushels 
In the case of Oats about one-third of the total yield was 
grown in America and nearly two-thirds in Europe, the 
total yield of Asia, Africa, and Australia being less than 
100,000,000 bushels. On the other hand more than a 
billion bushels were grown in Russia alone, nearly as 
much as in all the rest of Europe. 

During the decade before 1909 the average annual 
production of Oats in the United States was nearly 
900,000,000 bushels. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and 
MinnesoU were the four leading states in Oat produc- 
tion, these and Nebraska producing more than half the 
total crop. The diagram on page 218 shows the pro- 
duction of each state during the period named. 

Classification 

The numerous varieties of Oats are classified in various 
ways. One of the most convenient of these has to do 
with the position of the spikelets on the panicle. In one 
group the spikelets spread from the central stalk in all 
directions: these are the Spreading or the Open-panicle 



222 CROP PRODUCTION 

Oats; in the other group the spikelets are on one side: 
these are the Mane or Banner or Side-panicle Oats. The 
first group contains the most popular varieties. 

Culture 

Oats are cool-season plants. They thrive best in cool 
weather and a moist soil. Consequently they are most 
successful in northern regions, where they form one of 
the most important elements in farm rotations. They 
should be planted early in well-prepared soil, the seed 
being covered an inch deep. The plants come up 
quickly and grow rapidly, maturing early in summer. 
A fair yield in the northern states is fifty bushels an 
acre, although the average is much below this. 

A distinct advance in the growing of oats in the south- 
ern states has been brought about by the introduction 
of the "open furrow" method of seeding. The seed is 
sown in the fall on land which has been plowed and 
harrowed, being drilled in the bottom of furrows four 
inches deep made by a special machine. The young 
plants get well started before winter and the furrow is 
gradually filled in by the alternate freezing and thawing 
of the soil. The percentage of winter killing is thus 
greatly reduced and the roots are so far down that they 
are better able to withstand the droughts of spring or 
early summer. 

Enemies 

The Loose Smut is the most destructive fungous 
disease of oats. Its life-history is similar to that of the 
Loose Smut of Wheat, the spores being attached to the 
seed and entering the seedling soon after germination. 



OATS 



223 



The formalin treatment is an efficient remedy, and on a 
given farm will prevent serious loss if the seed oats are 
treated every second or third season. The necessity of 
this treatment is indicated by the statement that the 
annual loss in the United States 
due to the disease has been esti- 
mated at nearly $20,000,000. 

Not infrequently the Stem Rust 
of Oats does a great deal more 
damage in a given region than 
the Smut. This is similar to the 
Stem Rust of Wheat, having both 
a black and a red stage and is 
most destructive in wet seasons. 
The selection of resistant or early 
maturing varieties is the only 
method of prevention. In the 
southern states the kind called 
Texas Rust-proof is the most re- 
sistant, while in the north the 
White Russian has a similar 
reputation. 

The growing crop of oats is subject to attack by 
Chinch bugs, army worms, and various other grain and 
grass-feeding insects, but there are few special insects 
affecting oats. 





HAY 

AVERAGE ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION 
DECADE Y/3S9 -/908) 

//V THOUSANDS Of TOVS ' 



7 thousand to,,, 

J i_l 



FORAGE CROPS: GRASSES 

Exhibit of Grasses (Summer or Autumn) 

Plan a little exhibit of the common forage grasses. 
It should be easy to get most of these : 

Witch Grass 
Orchard Grass 
Barn yard Grass 



Timothy 

Kentucky Blue-grass 

Red Top 



Place in bottles of water if the specimens are freshly 
cut, or mount on stiff paper if they are dry. 

Find out which kinds are most largely grown for hay 
in the district. 

Have a recognition test after the plants have been on 
exhibition for a few days. 



224 



GRASSES 

The food for domestic animals derived from pasture 
and hay crops is one of the most important items in the 
total of American crops. The average annual produc- 
tion of hay alone is about sixty million tons, while the 
food derived from pastures is almost beyond calculation. 
The various grasses are the most important hay crops, 
although they are often combined with various clovers 
and in some regions are largely replaced by alfalfa. 
Timothy or Herd's Grass, Kentucky Blue-grass, and 
Red Top are most notable as hay and pasture grasses. 

Timothy or Herd's Grass 

Timothy or Herd's Grass (Phleum pratense) is uni- 
versally recognized as the great hay grass for American 
farms. It is easily established and easily destroyed 
when land is plowed for another crop. It yields heavily. 
The hay is of high food value and is relished by both 
horses and cattle. Seed sown this year will produce a 
good crop during the next two years and also in subse- 
quent years if the meadow receives proper top dressings. 
Red clover is commonly mixed with Timothy in planting. 

Interesting and remarkable results have lately been 
secured in the breeding of Timothy plants at Cornell 
University. Variations as to the habits of growth, 
earliness, yield of leaf and seed, and other characteriza- 
tions have been found, and definite progress has been 

225 



226 CROP PRODUCTION 

made in establishing numerous varieties for special 
purposes. 

Blue-grass and Red Top 

While Timothy as now grown is preeminently a hay 
plant and only secondarily a pasture grass the reverse 
is true of Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratcnsis), famous 
the world over as the best basis for a productive pasture. 
It is early and succulent and continues growth well 
through the season, though likely to be checked during 
the hot dry months of summer. It is especially valu- 
able for pastures because of the way it spreads out from 
a single plant, being strongly stoloniferous. In conse- 
quence it takes possession of the soil and crowds out 
weaker plants. 

As a meadow grass Red Top (Agrostis alba) ranks 
next to Timothy and on wet or sour soils it is to be 
preferred to it. It gives a good crop of hay the season 
after sowing and will thrive under conditions in which 
Timothy fails. It is strongly stoloniferous and may be 
used to advantage in seeding down the pasturage. 

Other Grasses 

Orchard Grass, Meadow Fescue, Canada Blue-grass, 
and Barn-yard Grass or Japanese Millet are also grown 
more or less in the northern states. In the southern 
states Bermuda Grass is of especial value for pastures 
and Johnson Grass for hay. The latter has the same 
rooting habits as Witch Grass and so is very difficult to 
eradicate when once established. Consequently it can- 
not be used to advantage in a system of crop rotation. 

Meadows and pastures of long standing become sod 



GRASSES 



227 



bound, so that the grass does not thrive and other stronger 
plants begin to come in. Daisies, wild carrots, plantains, 
flea-banes, hawk weeds, and many other weeds com- 
monly infest such grass fields. Their presence is an 
indication of the need of a renewal through plowing and 
rotation — the most effective method of dealing with 
weeds in grasslands. 





LEGUMINOUS CROPS: THE CLOVERS 

Exhibit of Legumes {Summer or A utumn) 

Plan a little exhibit of as many kinds of clovers and 
related plants as can be found growing in the neighbor- 
hood. Most localities should show these: 
Alsike Clover Alfalfa 

Red Clover Sweet Clover 

White Clover Pussy Clover 

Place two or three blossom-bearing stems in a bottle 
of water. Put a plainly printed label by each. After 
two or three days remove the labels and have a recogni- 
tion test. 

In case of doubt about the name of any plant brought 
in let the pupil send it to the State Experiment Station 
for identification. 

Red Clover 

Seed Inspection 

Examine through a lens one hundred seeds of red 
clover from the stocks offered for sale locally. 

See how many are really clover seeds and how many 
are seeds of other plants. 

228 



THE CLOVERS 229 

Seed Germination 

Determine the per cent of viability of twenty-five seeds 
placed in germination without preliminary treatment, 
allowing seven days for germination. 

Treat twenty-five other seeds from the same lot with 
sulphuric acid for twenty minutes. Determine the 
percentage of viability and compare quickness of germi- 
nation with that of the untreated seeds. 

Root Nodules 

Dig up a thrifty clover plant carefully. Wash the 
soil from the roots. See the little yellowish nodules on 
them. 

Make a drawing of a root showing some of the nodules. 

Read pages 275-281, Farm Friends and Farm Foes. 

Clover Soils 

Bring to school a half pint of soil in which clover 
thrives. 

Bring also a half pint of soil from a field in which 
clover does not grow — one in a low situation or an old 
pasture or meadow. 

Test each with blue and red litmus paper, simply 
covering the paper with the damp soil. 

If the soil is sour the blue litmus paper will turn red. 

Clover does not thrive in sour soils. 

Now mix a little powdered lime with the sour soil, 
stirring it up thoroughly and then letting it stand for a 
day or two. Then test again. What effect does lime 
have upon a sour soil? 



THE CLOVERS 

Until recently Red Clover was the most important 
leguminous crop known to American agriculture. It is 
still so in the eastern United States, but in western regions 
it has been eclipsed by Alfalfa, which seems likely also to 
largely supplant the clover in the east. Two important 
forms of Red Clover are grown: the Common or June 
Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) and the Mammoth 
Red Clover (variety perenne). The former is smaller, 
ripens earlier, and dies sooner than the latter, which by 
contrast is larger, ripens later, and lives longer. 

Two other important clovers are the Crimson and the 
Alsike Clover. The former is largely used as a cover 
crop in orchards and the latter as a forage crop for 
meadows and temporary pastures. Neither of them, 
however, is so largely grown as Alfalfa-or the Red Clovers. 

Clovers in Rotations 

The Clovers, especially the Red varieties, have long 
been recognized as an essential crop for any good system 
of crop rotation. Long before the way in which the 
legumes are able to collect nitrogen from the air and 
add it to the soil was understood, it was known that 
they did increase the supply of nitrogen. So they were 
largely grown to plow under as green manures and they 
still hold a very important place in this respect. 

Clover will not thrive upon an acid soil. The nodule- 

230 



THE CLOVERS 



231 



largely 
Conse- 




Red Clover: Effect of Bacteria 



forming bacteria upon which their growth 
depends are unable to develop in such a soil, 
quently it is often 
necessary to add lime 
in order to get Clover 
to grow, and very often 
it is desirable to inocu- 
late the soil with the 
nodule-forming bac- 
teria. 



Enemies 

Where Clover is 
utilized as a part of a 
plan of crop rotation 
that involves plowing 

it under after one season's crop has been removed 
it is comparatively little injured by insect pests. 
When it is grown longer, however, such enemies are 
more likely to multiply and prove destructive. Two 
of these pests attack the roots: the Clover-root 
Borer and the Clover-root Curculio. As adults 
both are small beetles that lay eggs on leaves or crowns 
of clover in spring, the eggs soon hatching into small 
larvae that feed upon the roots. When either proves 
troublesome the adoption of a system of short crop 
rotation is desirable. 

The Clover-leaf Beetle is another insect which has 
sometimes been troublesome in clover fields. The 
brownish snout beetle, about half an inch long, feeds 
upon the leaves and deposits eggs upon the stems. The 
larvae that hatch from the eggs feed upon the leaves for 



232 CROP PRODUCTION 

several weeks. Then they pupate at or just beneath the 
soil surface, to emerge a little later as beetles. Plowing 
the crop under in May or June is an effective remedy, as 
it destroys the larvae. 

If you take a dozen clover blossom heads, especially 
such as show a green and dwarfed condition, and shake 
them violently over a sheet of paper you may often dis- 
lodge tiny orange colored maggots, about one tenth of 
an inch long. These are the larvae of the Clover-seed 
Midge, an insect that often greatly reduces the crop of 
clover seed. The adult is a small two-winged gnat, with 
a long ovipositor by means of which it inserts eggs into 
the young florets of the red clover head. From these 
eggs the orange colored larvae hatch and develop at 
the expense of the embryo seeds. When full grown the 
larvae wriggle their way out of the head and fall to the 
ground, where they form slight silken cocoons within 
which they change to pupae. About ten days later 
they change again to the gnat-like flies that lay eggs for 
another brood of larvae. 

The injuries of the Clover-seed Midge are especially 
serious only in case the crop is grown for seed. Infested 
fields are distinguished by the green and dwarfed condi- 
tion of the heads at blossoming time. The best prevent- 
ive seems to be that of mowing the field in spring when 
the green heads are forming. There is thus produced a 
crop of blossoms which escape attack. 




LEGUMINOUS CROPS: ALFALFA OR LUCERNE CLOVER 

Seed Inspection 

Examine with a lens samples of Alfalfa seed offered 
for sale locally. 

Determine the percentage of impurities as represented 
by seeds of other plants. 

Sort these out and determine as many as possible by 
comparison with the collection of named seeds. 

Determine the percentage of dodder seed present. 

Seed Germination 

Determine viability without preliminary treatment, 
using twenty seeds and allowing ten days for germi- 
nation. 

Treat ten minutes with concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Wash through tea strainer to free seeds from acid. 

Now determine viability and compare the results 
with the results from untreated seeds. 

Root Nodules 

Dig up carefully some alfalfa plants. Wash roots in 
water. Spread out to dry. 



234 



CROP PRODUCTION 



See the little nodules on the roots that enable the 
plant to take nitrogen from the air. They look like 
the picture below which shows similar nodules on the 
roots of Soy beans. 

Draw some of the nodules. 

Enemies 

Examine alfalfa leaves for leaf-spot and other fungous 
diseases. 

See if you can find specimens injured by dodder. 
Look for insect enemies in alfalfa fields. 




ALFALFA 

Alfalfa or Lucerne is a member of the great Legume 
Family and is called by botanists Medicago saliva. It 
is one of the oldest forage crops, having been known in 
Persia and Greece centuries before the beginning of the 
Christian era. It was introduced to the American con- 
tinent by the Spanish invaders during the sixteenth 
century and was brought to Texas and California from 
Mexico and South America during the nineteenth 
century. It proved so well adapted to the western soils 
that it rapidly became a staple crop and is now the 
most important forage plant in the great region west of 
the Mississippi river. 

The extraordinary value of Alfalfa is to be explained 
in part by the great length of the roots and their ability, 
with the aid of nodule-forming bacteria, to gather free 
nitrogen from the air. Their deep descent and large 
extent enable them to get moisture even when the soil 
surface is dry and their ability to use free nitrogen gives 
them nutriment for vigorous growth year after year 
without the renewal of the field. These two factors 
probably account for the remarkable ability of the plants 
to send up new shoots when those already grown are cut 
off, so that six or more crops may be harvested in a single 
season. Another important element is found in the 
extraordinary richness of the leaves and stems in pro- 
tein, this fact giving them great value in feeding stock 
of almost any kind. 

235 



236 CROP PRODUCTION 

The long tap-root and other characteristics of the 
Alfalfa plant especially adapt it to the deep soils and the 
long seasons of the southern and western states. In 
Arizona the crop can be cut over eight times in a single 
season. But the plant also has decided value in the 
northern and eastern states. As its requirements are 
being better understood it is becoming a standard crop 
even in New England. Although it probably cannot 
take the place in eastern agriculture that it does in western 
regions, it can become of greatest importance here. 

Culture 

Alfalfa is more difficult to get well started than many 
other crops. It requires a rich, non-acid, weed-free 
soil, in good tilth, in which the nodule-forming bacteria 
are present. Many eastern soils must be treated with 
lime to counteract their acid condition and nearly all 
must be inoculated with Alfalfa or sweet clover bacteria. 
To do this a few bushels of soil from ground in which 
either of these plants have been growing thriftily are 
scattered over each acre to be seeded and quickly har- 
rowed in. Late summer or early autumn is the best 
time for seeding. 

Much of the value of Alfalfa lies in the leaves. It is 
important that the crop be cut early enough to save these 
from dropping off. As soon as ten per cent of the heads 
are in blossom it is time to cut the crop. The new crop 
of stems and leaves start sooner and better after such 
early cutting. 

Enemies 

It is not strange that a crop grown over large areas 
for many years in the same soil should have developed 



ALFALFA 



237 



many enemies. When once introduced into such a field 
the conditions for the development of the parasite are 
very favorable. So we find that Alfalfa is subject to 
more than a dozen fungous diseases, some of which at 
times become very destructive. 

The Alfalfa Leaf Spot is the most widespread of these 
fungous diseases, as it is present in nearly every alfalfa 
field and often causes the dropping of a large part of the 
leaves. The small brownish black spots are thickly 
scattered over the leaflets, which soon become yellow 
and fall away. Early cutting helps to check the trouble. 

Alfalfa is especially likely to be injured by the para- 
sitic plant called Dodder. This is not a fungous but a 
true flowering plant that grows upon the stems of other 
plants and sucks out nutriment from them. It grows 
from seed and is introduced to the field because Dodder 
seed is mixed with the Alfalfa seed. Consequently seed 
for planting should be carefully examined, and if the 
Dodder seeds are present it should not be planted. 




V. 
SOILS 

THEIR ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS 
AND IMPROVEMENT 



THE MAKING OF THE SOIL 

Observations on Soils 

If you live in a region where there are rocky ledges, 
examine different parts of the ledges to see if you can find 
where particles of rock have been broken up to help 
form soil. Notice the plant growths upon the ledges and 
see if there are fragments of such plants mixed with the 
rock particles. Find places between the ledges where 
higher plants are growing in small amounts of such soil. 

Examine the soil that you find in the woods. Notice 
the layer of recently fallen leaves at the surface and note 
that the soil below is composed of leaves that have 
decayed. Dig down through the surface to the sub- 
soil and notice the differences between the layers. 

Visit a swamp or a peat bog and dig into the soil 
in a similar way. 

Visit a brook and examine the deposits of soil along 
its margin. Notice where sand has been carried in and 
deposited in pockets and where various bits of plant 
life, such as dead twigs and pieces of tree trunk, have 
been piled up to rot and form soil. 

The Making of the Soil 

The production of crops depends upon the relation 
between the soil and the various crop plants. The 
soil is made up primarily of particles of rock that have 

241 



242 CROP PRODUCTION 

been gradually worn away from the solid mass that 
originally formed the surface of the earth, together with 
the remains of plant and animal life that have been 
accumulating for millions of years. 

It seems hard to believe that soils have thus come from 
rocks and ledges, especially if one lives in a prairie region 
where rocks are few and far between, and where the soil 
is deep, mellow, and rich. But if one lives near or can 
visit a rocky, mountainous region, it is comparatively 
easy to see many stages in the process of soil formation. 
What at first sight seems to be a bare cliff shows upon 
closer examination various greenish patches on the 
surface. These are low forms of plant life that get their 
materials for growth chiefly from the air and the water. 
At the bottom of the cliff one is likely to find a mass of 
rock fragments of many sizes that have dropped from 
the face of the cliff ; these pieces of rock are often more 
or less mLxed with little fragments of plant growth that 
have fallen from above. We thus have the beginning 
of soil formation through the mixture of rock particles 
and fragments of plant life. In this material higher 
plants soon grow, and when they die their remains are 
added to enrich and enlarge the mass of soil. 

In a general way this is the process of soil formation 
which is taking place throughout the world. The soil 
originally formed in one place may have been carried 
by streams of water, by constant winds, or by the action 
of the great ice glaciers of a previous age from one 
locality to another. So even the deep soil of a rich prairie 
region may have come from far away during the long 
ages in winch the world was getting ready for man to 
occupy it. 



THE MAKING OF THE SOIL 243 

Fertile soils contain a considerable proportion of the 
partially decayed remains of plant life. This material 
is commonly called humus. In general, humus is a 
convenient word to use when we wish to speak of the 
organic material in a soil as distinguished from the in- 
organic material. The organic material is that which 
has come from living things, — plants or animals, — 
though we should remember that all animal materials 
are derived from plants. The inorganic material is the 
part of the soil that is derived from rocks. 

If you visit a swamp, especially a peat bog, you are 
likely to find a soil composed very largely of humus. It 
is made up chiefly of the partially decayed remains of 
plants that have lived and died in the swamp. 

From the point of view of successful crop production, 
the presence of humus in the soil is of greatest impor- 
tance. This dead vegetation helps more than any other 
one thing to render the soil fit for the root growth of crop 
plants. It furnishes the best material for improving the 
physical condition of both clay and sandy soils. It 
helps to fill the pores between the soil particles and serves 
as an absorbent to hold water, thus storing it up for the 
use of plants. It forms a breeding place for the mil- 
lions of bacteria of many kinds, which help so largely in 
rendering the soil fertile for plant growth. It furnishes 
many tiny particles for the support of root hairs and 
readily gives up to these the supply of food and mois- 
ture which they require. 

While it is true that soils originally were made up of 
particles of rock mixed with the remains of plants or 
animals, soils as they now exist are much more complex 
than is usually supposed. Every fertile soil is filled 



244 CROP PRODUCTION 

with living germs of many kinds which are continually 
reacting upon the soil particles and getting plant food 
into condition for use by crops. The lives of these lowly 
organisms and the effects which they produce upon the 
soil are so complicated that they are not thoroughly 
understood even by the wisest men. We know enough, 
however, to recognize the fact that this germ life in the 
soil plays a very important part in the fertility of our 
fields and that it is highly desirable to furnish condi- 
tions which are favorable for the development of various 
kinds of bacteria. Among these conditions we should 
include an abundant supply of air to be secured through 
thorough drainage and frequent tillage and a proper 
amount of humus well incorporated between the soil 
particles. Where too much humus is present, however, 
the soil becomes sour — a condition which is unfavor- 
able to the development of bacteria. In such cases 
the addition of lime tends to sweeten the soil and make 
it more favorable for germ life. 

These tiny bacteria live not only in the soil itself, but 
a very important kind lives in little nodules upon the 
roots of certain plants. Nearly all of these plants be- 
long to the great family of legumes, which includes the 
clovers, beans, peas, vetches, and alfalfa. 



THE WATER IN THE SOIL 
Drains and Drainage 

If there is an open ditch in your locality, notice it 
carefully, especially after a rain. Does the water run 
into it through the vertical sides, and does it have the 
effect of causing the neighboring soil to dry out more 
quickly than if the ditch were not there? 

If you can find the place where a tile ditch opens into 
a brook, notice the water pouring out of the tile. Where 
did it come from? What is the effect upon the field 
of thus placing tiles in the bottom of the ditch and cover- 
ing them over? 

Find out, if you can, what fields in your locality have 
been drained by means of tile drains. Notice whether 
such fields are in better condition than similar fields 
without such drainage. 

Free Water in the Soil 

Just after a rain the soil in your garden is likely to be 
very wet. If you dig down two or three feet the hole 
will probably fill with water. If you dig a ditch so that 
this water can run away, you will soon cause the surplus 
moisture in the soil to disappear, so that if you should 
dig another hole no water would come into it. 

The water that has thus accumulated in the bottom of 
the hole or has run away through the drain is called the 

2 A5 



246 CROP PRODUCTION 

free water of the soil. Such free water fills the pores 
between the soil particles, and unless there is natural 
or artilicial drainage, it is Likely to remain and keep the 
ground so wet that the soil becomes stagnant and then 
the roots of most plants cannot grow. Consequently, 
in productive soils there must be either natural or 
artificial drainage to permit this free water to run away. 

The great majority of sandy and loamy soils are so 
situated that there is natural drainage by means of which 
the free soil water seeks lower levels without help from 
man. But in many clay soils, and in other soils which 
are underlaid by hard pan, it is necessary to provide 
artificial drainage to lower the level of this free water 
in the soil. The simplest way to provide drainage is to 
dig through the middle of a field a ditch deep enough so 
that the water will readily be carried away. This ditch 
may be left open, but in this case it takes up much room 
and is inconvenient. A better plan is to lay drain 
tiles along the bottom of the ditch and then fill in the 
ditch with earth over the tile. This is called tile drain- 
age, and it is the best method of improving wet soil. 

Such soils are improved by tile drainage because the 
surplus water runs away quickly, leaving the pores be- 
tween the soil particles open to air and. root growth. 
Consequently, the field can be worked earlier in spring, 
so that the crops gel an earlier start and the roots go 
deeper. 

Capillary Moisture 

If you take a handful of soil from a drained field and 
squeeze it tightly, you are likely to find that it is quite 
moist. Obviously the free water in the soil in this case 



THE WATER IN THE SOIL 247 

has run away, but moisture is still present. You can 
demonstrate this even more satisfactorily by heating 
a little of the soil and seeing the steam escape. 

The water that is thus present in soils from which the 
free water has run away is called capillary moisture. 
Around each tiny particle of the soil is a very thin film 
of water that is held there by capillary attraction. If 
you place the lower end of a vertical string or a lamp 
wick in water, you will find that this string or wick soon 
becomes wet for some distance above the surface. The 
water is drawn upward along the thread by capillary 
attraction. This is the same force that serves to keep 
the film of moisture around the soil particles. 

Capillary attraction also helps to keep soils moist by 
causing the water from below to rise constantly toward 
the top, very much as the oil in a kerosene lamp rises 
constantly to the flame. The particles at the surface 
lose a great deal of moisture through evaporation, espe- 
cially when the ground is baked. This loss is replaced 
by the water that rises from below in very much the same 
way that the oil burned in a lamp flame is replaced by 
the oil contained in the lamp. 

The amount of capillary moisture held by a soil 
depends very largely upon the fineness of the particles. 
The smaller and more numerous these particles are, the 
larger is the surface to be covered by the film of water. 
You can easily understand this if you make the following 
experiment : 

Cut from a potato a cube an inch square. Estimate 
the amount of surface it presents. Then cut this cube 
into eight smaller cubes, all of equal size. Estimate the 
surface area which the original cube now has. By cut- 



248 CROP PRODUCTION 

ting each of these into eight more you will easily see that 
the surface area depends entirely upon the size of the 
particles. 

The water held by capillary attraction depends upon 
the surface area of the particles. Consequently a coarse 
gravel would hold less moisture than a coarse sand, 
and the coarse sand would hold less than a fine sand. 



SOIL FERTILITY 

Rich Soils and Poor Soils 

Notice carefully different fields in your vicinity to 
see which naturally produce good crops and which pro- 
duce poor ones. Get samples of the soil from the dif- 
ferent fields and examine them as to their fineness and 
the comparative amounts of clay, sand, and humus. 
Stir each soil in a tumbler of water and then let it settle. 
After it has settled notice the different layers. 

Commercial Fertilizers 

In the school or home garden, plant quick-growing 
crops like radishes or lettuce, using a small amount of 
commercial fertilizer for part of each row and omitting 
it for the rest. Watch the crops as they develop and see 
which starts the sooner and grows the more vigorously. 

Learn which farmers in, the vicinity use commercial 
fertilizers and for what crops. Find out whether such 
use is repaid by the increased yields of the crop. 

Root Nodules 

Carefully dig up the roots of clovers, peas, beans, 
alfalfa, vetch, or other members of the great family of 
legumes, and wash the soil out in water. Then examine 
the roots to see whether there are small nodules or tuber 
cules upon them. These nodules contain millions of 

249 



250 CROP PRODUCTION 

tiny bacteria that help the plant to grow by gathering 
the free nitrogen from the air. 

Find out what farmers in your vicinity plow under 
green crops to enrich the soil. Learn whether these 
crops belong to the great family of legumes. 

Soil Fertility 

There are certain chemical compounds which are espe- 
cially necessary for the growth of crops. The most 
important of these are phosphoric acid, potash, and nitro- 
gen. Nearly all crop plants take up large quantities 
of these three materials, and it is often necessary to 
replace this loss by the addition of special combinations 
of chemicals containing them. Such combinations are 
added for the purpose of fertilizing the soil, and as these 
fertilizers are usually sold in large quantities commer- 
cially, they are commonly called commercial fertilizers. 
Most soils contain certain amounts of these substances 
which were originally present in the formation of the 
soil or have been developed through the action of bac- 
teria or chemical compounds on the humus or other 
soil material. 

In order to be available for the growth of crops, all 
of the materials that enter into the plant must be either 
in a liquid form or dissolved in water. A soil may con- 
tain considerable amounts of potash, phosphorus, or 
other elements which are locked up so far as plants are 
concerned, because they are not in the soluble form. 
One cannot always tell from the mere fact that a soil on 
chemical analysis shows large amounts of these essential 
elements that it is necessarily in a fertile condition. 



SOIL FERTILITY 



251 



Obviously the materials applied to the land in the form 
of commercial fertilizers should be easily soluble. As 
a rule the ingredients of these fertilizers are of this sort, 
and one can easily tell from the guaranteed analysis 
given by the manufacturers to what extent this is true. 

Among the various chemical elements which are needed 
for the growth of plants, nitrogen is one of the most 
important. It is commonly furnished in the form of 
commercial fertilizers as well as in connection with the 
various organic fertilizers that are applied to the soil. 

Every one knows that a 
large part of the air is com- 
posed of nitrogen, and one 
might think that an ele- 
ment which is so abundant 
would be easily available 
for plant growth. The 
nitrogen of the air, how- 
ever, is not in a form which 
plants can utilize, so that 
the free-air nitrogen cannot 
be depended upon for 
direct help in the growth 
of flowering plants. 

Fortunately, there are certain low forms of germ life 
which are able to take the free nitrogen of the air and fix 
it in a condition in which it can be used by the higher 
plants. This constitutes a sort of partnership between 
the bacteria and the various members of the great family 
of legumes — the clovers, vetches, beans, peas, alfalfa, 
and related crops. These bacteria produce nodules 
upon the roots of such plants, and in the nodules the 




Nodules Containing Nitrogen 
On the roots of a leguminous plant. 



252 CROP PRODUCTION 

bacteria multiply and through their life processes gather 
the free nitrogen of the air. They store it up in the plant 
tissues so that it becomes available for the growth of 
the particular plants that they are living upon, and 
through these it may later become available for the use 
of other crops. The illustration on page 231 shows the 
effect of the presence or absence of bacteria in the soil. 
This relation between the germs and the leguminous 
plants is one of the most important factors in maintain- 
ing the fertility of the soil. By including in each system 
of crop rotation one of these leguminous plants, which is 
to be plowed under in whole or in part, the store both of 
humus and nitrogen in the soil is increased to a marked 
degree. For the nitrogen which is gathered from the 
air is sent to all parts of the plant, so that if the green 
crop is plowed under, most of the nitrogen remains in 
the soil to enrich it for other crops. 



SOIL TILLAGE AND CROP ROTATION 

Kinds of Tillage 

Notice in what way the crop-producing soils of your 
locality are tilled. Observe how the soil is plowed, 
harrowed, cultivated, rolled, hoed, and raked. 

During a dry time in summer notice the cracks that 
appear in a soil which has been neglected, and compare 
such a condition with the surface of a soil which has 
been kept in good condition by tillage. 

Learn how deep the fields in your neighborhood are 
usually plowed. Does the plow go down to the sub- 
soil? 

Tillage and Moisture 

Notice whether the soil under a board or any mass 
of rubbish that serves as a surface mulch is more moist 
than the soil along a path or roadside where there is no 
mulch and where the surface is not tilled. Do you 
think that the board or mulch prevents the evaporation 
of the water in the soil and so holds it for the use of plant 
roots? 

Now find a place in a well-cultivated field where the 
surface is in a finely pulverized condition and remove 
an inch or two of the top soil. Is the soil below moist 
in very much the same way that it is moist beneath the 
board or mulch? Do you think that this layer of sur- 
face soil serves the purpose of a mulch in keeping the 
water from evaporating? 

-'53 



254 CROP PRODUCTION 

Rotation of Crops 

Find out whether the best farmers in your locality 
plant their fields to different crops each year. Ask 
some successful farmer if he ever plants the same field 
to corn or potatoes for several years in succession. 

Learn what crops are used to follow one another by 
the different farmers in your neighborhood and make 
a table of as many reasons as you can find for the practice 
of crop rotation in your vicinity. 

Dig up carefully a few plants of timothy, oats, wheat, 
clover, corn, or other crops and see if you can find how 
far down into the soil the roots go in each case. 

Tillage 

By tillage is meant some process of digging up and 
working over the soil. It is the most fundamental prac- 
tice in the production of the great majority of crops. 
Unless the soil is tilled at rather frequent intervals, it 
becomes so firm and hard that it is difficult for plant roots 
to penetrate it and consequently the plants are unable 
to thrive. 

The two principal kinds of tillage are deep tillage and 
surface tillage. When we dig up a garden with a spade, 
or plow a field to a depth of eight or ten inches, we are 
practicing deep tillage. When we hoe or rake a garden, 
or cultivate a field, we are practicing surface tillage. 

Deep tillage is necessary to furnish a proper place for 
adequate root growth for most crops. It loosens up the 
soil particles in such a way that they are easily penetrated 
by the roots and rootlets and are able to furnish the 



SOIL TILLAGE AND CROP ROTATION 255 

tiny root hairs with moisture and materials for growth. 
The important time for deep tillage is before the crop 
is planted. 

Surface tillage is necessary to keep the upper layer 
of soil in good condition, to check the growth of weeds, 
and to prevent the evaporation of soil moisture. The 
latter result is accomplished because proper surface 
tillage produces a so-called dust mulch which prevents 
evaporation from the soil below. The important time 
for surface tillage is after the crop has started into 
growth. 

Crop Rotation 

The rotation of crops is one of the best ways of con- 
serving the fertility of the soil. When this is practiced 
one crop follows another in the same field, so that for a 
series of years no single crop shall be planted for two 
successive seasons. A common succession is to follow 
corn with wheat and wheat with clover, so that for a 
series of three years the field will be planted the first year 
to corn, the second year to wheat, and the third year to 
clover, the latter being plowed under after it has been 
growing one or two seasons, when the field may again be 
planted to corn. In different regions different systems 
of rotation are practiced. 

There are many advantages in a proper system of 
crop rotation. One of the most important of these is 
in the ability to enrich the land by plowing under clover 
or some other leguminous crop which gathers nitrogen 
from the air. The principal legumes used in this way 
are red clover, crimson clover, alfalfa, cow peas, and 
the vetches. Each of these crops is able to gather free 



256 CROP PRODUCTION 

nitrogen from the air and to fix it so that as the root- 
stems and leaves decay the nitrogen becomes available 
for the growth of other crops. There is also thus added 
to the soil a large amount of green vegetation which 
helps to form humus, one of the most important elements 
in the make-up of a soil. 

Another advantage of crop rotation is found in the 
fact that the roots of different plants penetrate to differ- 
ent depths in the soil. Consequently, it is possible to 
plan a rotation so that each crop will derive most of its 
food from a different region below the soil surface. Such 
a grass as timothy is known as a shallow feeder, because 
its roots generally remain within six inches of the surface. 
Alfalfa, on the other hand, is a deep feeder, its roots 
commonly penetrating to a depth of from four to twenty 
feet. Obviously, there is an advantage in including 
crops with such different root systems in a rotation. 

Another advantage of crop rotation is found in the 
fact that different plants take different amounts of 
chemical substances from the soil. While it is not now 
believed that this fact is of as much importance as was 
formerly supposed, it still serves as a good reason for 
practicing an intelligent system of crop rotation. 

In most rotations the different crops require very 
different methods of cultivation. Thus a hoed crop 
like corn is often foil wed by a drilled or broadcast 
crop like wheat. Because of this it is easier to keep 
in check many sorts of weeds which become unduly 
abundant when one crop is planted in the same field for 
many successive seasons. In a somewhat similar way 
various fungus diseases are checked by rotation, and the 
injuries of many forms of insect life are prevented. 



THE KINDS OF SOILS 

Local Soils 

Notice the different kinds of soils which are used for 
crops in your region. Get samples from a sandy upland 
soil, a clay soil, a good garden loam, and a swamp soil. 
Put them into bottles or tumblers and examine their 
texture through a lens. Add water and shake thor- 
oughly. Notice the differences after the soils settle in 
the water. 

The Kinds of Soils 

Soils are classified in many ways, but for our present 
purpose we may group them simply under these four 
headings: clay soils, sandy soils, loamy soils, muck 
soils. Clay soils are composed chiefly of clay, and are 
liable to cake when wet and to bake when dry. Sandy 
soils are composed chiefly of sand, the greatest number 
of particles generally being quartz, and are liable to be 
unproductive because of a lack of humus and because 
of their inability to hold water. Loamy soils have a 
considerable percentage of humus, which makes them 
easy to work and suitable for plant growth. A given soil 
may be a sandy loam, having much sand as a basis, or a 
clay loam, having much clay as a basis. A muck soil 
is derived mainly from plant growth, and may lack cer- 
tain elements of fertility necessary to successful crop 
production. 

257 



258 CROP PRODUCTION 

Improving Clay Soils 

In many parts of the United States clay soils predomi- 
nate in a large proportion of the farms. Such soils are 
likely to be so firmly compacted that crops do not thrive. 
This is because the particles which make up the soil are 
in so finely powdered condition that they collect together, 
prevent the easy growth of roots, retain moisture in wet 
weather, and bake solid in dry weather. To remedy 
this condition it is necessary to treat the soil by such 
methods as will either change its texture or increase the 
size of the spaces between the soil particles. 

One of the most effective ways of improving a clay 
soil is by a thorough system of drainage. This permits 
the surplus water to run away rapidly, thus allowing the 
air freer access from above. It is likely to decrease 
the injury from surface baking in dry weather, and 
enables the owner to till the soil oftener and to secure 
better results by means of such tillage. 

Frequent tillage when a clay soil is in a proper condi- 
tion to work is very helpful in improving its texture. 
It breaks up the large lumps and greatly increases the 
amount of air between the soil particles, thus enabling 
the root hairs to penetrate more freely and the various 
micro-organisms in the soil to work more effectively. 

It is very injurious, however, to plow, spade, or even hoe 
a clay soil when it is too wet. Such treatment compacts 
the soil particles so firmly that they harden into solid 
clumps which plant roots are not able to penetrate. 
When a clay soil is too dry, tillage can be done only 
under great disadvantage, as the operation becomes 
very difficult, and the soil is likely to separate into large 
lumps which are hard to pulverize. 



THE KINDS OF SOILS 259 

One of the best ways of improving the quality of a clay 
soil is to work into it a considerable amount of organic 
matter. When this decays, the particles of humus be- 
come thoroughly mixed with the soil particles, holding 
them apart and furnishing a porous material that absorbs 
water readily and also gives it up readily to plant roots. 
The practice of applying barnyard manures, of plowing 
under green crops, or of working in fallen leaves is an 
excellent method of adding organic matter to the soil. 
By a constant repetition of such practice, clay soils may 
be brought into admirable condition for crop production. 

Clay soils may be greatly unproved by the liberal 
application of some form of agricultural lime Finely 
ground limestone appears to be one of the best forms 
in which to apply this substance. The improvement 
brought about is to be explained in several ways. Lime 
has a direct action upo n the particles of clay, causing 
them to break apart and thus increasing the air spaces 
between the particles. This is often called the floccu- 
lating action of lime. 

The presence of lime also hastens the decay of organic 
matter and apparently renders the soil more favorable 
to the nitrogen-gathering bacteria which live in the roots 
of clover, alfalfa, and other legumes. The lime neu- 
tralizes many acid substances in the soil and directly or 
indirectly helps to prevent the growth of various organ- 
isms which injure the roots of plants. 

The application of lime is especially desirable before 
sowing any leguminous crop. It also helps the growth 
of many other farm and garden crops, but it has an in- 
jurious effect upon potatoes, strawberries, and a few 
other fruits and vegetables. 



260 CROP PRODUCTION 

Improving Sandy Soils 

In the case of clay soils the particles are too fine for 
the best results, so that it is necessary to give such treat- 
ment as will have the effect of making the particles or 
the spaces between them larger. In the case of sandy 
soils, on the other hand, the trouble is quite the reverse. 
The particles are so large that the spaces between them 
allow the rapid running away of moisture, and the par- 
ticles themselves are so hard that they do not absorb 
moisture, and they afford very little nourishment to 
the root hairs of plants. In improving such soils it is 
necessary to treat them so that they will hold water 
better and will have a larger proportion of organic 
matter as a basis for plant food. 

With most sandy soils the chief method of improve- 
ment is to increase the amount of humus by adding 
large quantities of organic matter and plowing or spad- 
ing it under. For this purpose barnyard manure, green 
crops of clover, rye, vetch, or other plants, or the fallen 
leaves of trees and shrubs serve very well. When any 
of these materials is mixed with sandy soil, it soon 
decays and furnishes vast numbers of particles of humus 
that lie between the particles of sand and help to make 
the soil more mellow. The supply of moisture and 
plant food is thus greatly increased, and the opportu- 
nity for proper development of plant roots is improved. 
Such treatment helps to make the soil much more 
compact. 



APPENDIX 




SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 

Starting Seeds Indoors 

For starting seeds of flowers and vegetables indoors one or 
more wide shallow boxes is very desirable. It should be of 
such a depth as to hold readily about three inches of soil 
and have above the soil surface about an inch of board around 
the sides so that the water will not overflow. One of the 
most satisfactory seed beds I have used in school work is 
one of the familiar sand tables so generally utilized in geog- 
raphy classes. In a great many schools these sand tables are 
available and may readily be spared for the starting of the 
seedlings during the few weeks in spring when they are es- 
pecially needed for this purpose. In the absence of a sand 
table window boxes or shallow boxes of almost any sort may 
be utilized. 

The seed bed should be placed in such a position that it 
will get as much light and air as possible, receiving direct 
sunshine during part of the day. The soil used should be a 
good rich garden loam which has been sifted through a garden 
sieve so that all the particles are in a finely pulverized condi- 
tion. It should be kept moderately moist but not too wet 
and should never be allowed to dry out completely. The 
seed may be sown either in drills or broadcast over part of 
the surface, and should be covered by sifting more soil over 
it, the depth of covering depending upon the size of the seed. 

After the seedlings are up they may be transplanted to 
shallow boxes, or better to small sized flower-pots. For 
school use I have found the paper flower-pots to have many 
advantages over the ordinary pottery kinds. These paper 

263 



264 CROP PRODUCTION 

pots are very inexpensive, the smaller sorts costing at whole- 
sale hut twenty-live cents per hundred. They also take up 
less room than do the common kinds, and as the sides of the 
pot are of oiled paper they do not allow the constant evapora- 
tion that is likely to take place in a heated schoolroom from 
the entire surface of the ordinary flower-pot. They are less 
easily broken than the ordinary pot and it is safer to trust 
pupils to carry their plants home in them. 

The seedlings may be grown for several weeks in these 
individual pots and are then to be transplanted to the outdoor 
garden. If, in the meanwhile, the roots get too crowded in 
the pot in which a plant is growing it should of course be 
repotted into a pot of larger size. 

The Flower Border 

In the case of the more important annual flowers discussed 
in these pages specific directions are given for transplanting 
them out of doors. In general it may be said, however, that 
the best place to plant the flower garden is along the border 
of a yard, with the fence or wall as background, or along the 
sides of the house or in some part of the vegetable garden. 
Flower gardens should not be a bit of space cut in the middle 
of a lawn, for this not only injures the beauty of the lawn 
but it seldom gives the flowers a good opportunity to develop. 

The first requisite for a successful border garden is a well- 
prepared place for the roots to live and feed in. In almost 
any school this is easily accomplished if the teacher will let 
the pupils help. Dig out the soil or sand or gravel of the site 
selected to a depth of at least eighteen inches,— two feet is 
better. Then till in this lower space with fallen leaves, 
grass raked from the lawn, mulching from the winter cover- 
ings of ornamental gardens, almost anything in fact that 
consists chiefly of plant fiber that will rot down to form 
humus. As these materials are placed on the bottom, 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 265 

sprinkle over a little of the soil taken out so that it is about 
one third soil. Then on top, get, if possible, eight inches or 
so of loamy soil. The pupils will be glad to help furnish the 
latter, if it cannot be obtained otherwise. As the coarse 
material below rots down it will form a good substance for 
holding moisture during the dry summer weather. 

If there is a long border to be made into a garden, begin at 
one end and go as far as you can easily the first season. 
leaving the rest for another year. 

The making of such a border garden at school is the best 
sort of an object lesson to the pupils as to the way the border 
gardens at home are to be made. 

The Vegetable Garden 

That school is fortunate which is able to provide an out- 
door vegetable garden near the schoolhouse for the use of 
pupils, and these pages should prove a helpful guide in all 
such cases. But the experience of an increasing number of 
schools shows that a great deal may be done in the encour- 
agement of home gardens by the pupils, in the numerous 
cases of those schools which are not so situated that they can 
have pupils' gardens near at hand. 

In most cases it is not desirable to lay too much stress upon 
the selection of a particular site or soil for the home garden. 
It is better to encourage pupils to make the most of the soil 
they have. 

The garden is first to be plowed and harrowed, or spaded 
and raked, to get it in the best possible condition. Fertiliz- 
ing materials of any sort available should be worked in before 
or after turning over. Each crop is then to be planted accord- 
ins to the directions given in tin' text. 



266 CROP PRODUCTION 

Recognition Tests 

Among the projects outlined in the foregoing pages there 
are many small and temporary exhibits of flowers, fruits and 
other things, each properly labeled. In order to be sure that 
such displays have been of greatest benefit it is very desirable 
to have recognition tests for each pupil. 

This exhibit may be placed to advantage in a hallway or 
small room adjoining the main room. In case such a place 
is not available have it on a table in a corner of the room. 
Notify the pupils that after a few days there will be a test 
to see that each knows the name of every object shown. 
Then on the day selected remove the labels and give the 
test to one of the more responsible pupils. Then let that 
pupil give the test to each other pupil, having them go one 
at a time and name each object. Mark them on this test, 
just as you would on a book recitation. 

Seed-testing Apparatus 

The testing of seeds by individual pupils is one of the 
simplest and most useful applications of the project method. 
Such tests can be made in any school at any time with appa- 
ratus that any one can get. 

In order to germinate a seed needs moisture, air and 
warmth. Any device that provides these will serve for seed 
testing. Two pieces of blotting paper kept moist with the 
seeds between them answers very well. Some more elaborate 
but very satisfactory devices are shown in the pictures on 
previous pages. 

Plants in the Schoolroom 

It is a very simple matter to have pupils grow plants 
in the schoolroom with individual care and responsibility, 
provided one has a few inexpensive zinc trays and a supply 
of the cheap paper flower-pots to be purchased of any seeds- 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 267 

man. Have the zinc trays made to fit the window sills or 
better to fit shelves just below each window. If the windows 
are wide have two trays for each because short trays are so 
much easier to handle than long ones. A good size is 30 
inches long, 8 inches wide, 1 \ inches high. 

The paper flower-pots cost from twenty to forty cents a 
hundred. Good sizes for school work range from the 2\ inch 
to 3^ inch, the 3 inch size being most generally useful. 

A few water-tight zinc window boxes about four inches 
high and of a length and width to fit the window are also very 
desirable. A full discussion concerning the making and use 
of these may be found in The School Garden Book. 

Identification of Specimens 
The school may have an important influence on community 
life by encouraging pupils to send specimens of unknown 
insect enemies or fungous diseases, or of undetermined va- 
rieties of fruits, grains or other crops to the State experiment 
stations or the National Department of Agriculture. These 
authorities will be glad to identify such specimens and to send 
any desired information concerning them. The addresses 
of these institutions arc: 

Alabama College Experiment Station . Auburn 

Arizona Experiment Station Tucson 

Arkansas Experiment Station Fayetteville 

California .... Experiment Station Berkeley 

Colorado Experiment Station Fort Collins 

Connecticut . . . State Experiment Station . . New Haven 

Connecticut . . . College Experiment Station . Storrs 

Delaware .... Experiment Station Newark 

Florida Experiment Station Gainesville 

Georgia Experiment Station Experiment 

Idaho Experiment Station Moscow 

Illinois Experiment Station Urbana 

Indiana Experiment Station Lafayette 

Iowa Experiment Station Ames 



268 



CROP PRODUCTION 



Kansas . . 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 
Maine .... 
Maryland . . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan . . 
Minnesota . . 
Mississippi . . 
Missouri . . . 
Montana . . . 
Nebraska . . 
Nevada . . . 
New Hampshire 
New Jersey 
New Mexico . 
New York . . 
New York . . 
North Carolina 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Ohio . . . 
Oklahoma . 
Oregon . . 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee . . 
Texas . . 
Utah . . 
Vermont . 
Virginia 
Washington 
West Virginia 
Wisconsin 
Wyoming . 
United States 



Experiment Station Manhattan 

Experiment Station Lexington 

Experiment Station Baton Rouge 

Experiment Station Orono 

Experiment Station College Park 

Experiment Station Amherst 

Experiment Station East Lansing 

Experiment Station St. Anthony Park 

Experiment Station Agricultural College 

Experiment Station Columbia 

Experiment Station Bozeman 

Experiment Station Lincoln 

Experiment Station Reno 

Experiment Station Durham 

Experiment Station New Brunswick 

Experiment Station Agricultural College 

State Experiment Station . . Geneva 
Cornell Experiment Station . Ithaca 
College Experiment Station . West Raleigh 
State Experiment Station . . Raleigh 

Experiment Station Vgricultural College 

Experiment Station Wooster 

Experimenl Station Stillwater 

Experiment Station Corvallis 

Experiment Station State College 

Experiment Station Kingston 

Experiment Station Clemson College 

Experiment Station Bookings 

Experiment Station Knoxville 

Experiment Station College Station 

Experiment Station Logan 

Experimenl Station Burlington 

Experiment Station Blacksburg 

Experiment Station Pullman 

Experiment Station Morgantown 

Experiment Station Madison 

Experiment Station Laramie 

Department of Agriculture . . Washington. D.C. 



